Case Study 2: Communist Panic

Debney, Ben M.

doi:10.1007/978-981-15-5569-5_6

Ben M. Debney ²

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Abstract

This second case study examines communist panic, the second of three case studies exploring historical patterns of moral panic and their relationship to scapegoating. It outlines the construction of communist panic as such according to the analytical criteria nominated in the theoretical section of this research project, looking at the self-interested framing of the crisis from which it derived by those responsible for the panic itself, before examining the use of moral panic constructed around communist mythology as the basis for crisis leveraging and scapegoating.

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Notes

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2.

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3.

Madison, James, ‘Madison Debates, June 29,’ in Notes on the Debates in the Federal Convention, 28 June 1787, Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Library, via http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_629.asp, accessed 12 May 2018; Madison, James, Letters and Other Writings of James Madison, 4 vols., Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1865.
4.

For general material on state persecution of dissent, ‘Othering’ of perceived threats to the status quo and scapegoating in general during the long era of communist panic, see Feldman, Jay, Manufacturing Hysteria: A History of Scapegoating, Surveillance, and Secrecy in Modern America, Pantheon, 2011; Hofstadter, Richard, The Paranoid Style in American Politics, London: Cape, 1966; Davis, David, The Fear of Conspiracy: Images of Un-American Subversion from the Revolution to the Present, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1971.
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Rickover, Hyman George, How the Battleship Maine Was Destroyed, Naval Inst Press, 1976; Foner, Philip Sheldon, The Spanish-Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperialism, 1895–1902, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972, 230–253, ‘The Road to War.’
6.

Ironically, Teddy Roosevelt complained in a letter to a friend on February 16, 1898, that ‘the Maine was sunk by an act of dirty treachery on the part of the Spaniards’ and that nobody would ever learn the cause of the disaster which would presumably be recorded as an accident.’ Foner, The Spanish-Cuban-American War, ibid., 231, 240; Wilkerson, Marcus M., Public Opinion and the Spanish-American War; a Study in War Propaganda, PhD dissertation, Louisiana State University, 1932.
7.

Foner, The Spanish-Cuban-American War, ibid., 284.
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10.

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13.

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14.

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Van Nuys, Frank, Americanizing the West: Immigrants and Citizenship, 1890–1930, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2002, 16.
17.

Higham, John, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988, 142–143.
18.

Van Nuys, Americanizing the West, op. cit., 17.
19.

McCarthy, Joseph, ‘Speech in Wheeling, West Virginia,’ U.S. Senate, State Department Loyalty Investigation Committee on Foreign Relations, 81st Congress, 1950; Cardwell, Curt, NSC 68 and the Political Economy of the Early Cold War, Cambridge University Press, 2011, 166.
20.

Griffith, Robert, The Politics of Fear: Joseph McCarthy and the Senate, University of Massachusetts Press, 1987, 48.
21.

McCarthy, Joseph, ‘Speech of Joseph McCarthy, Wheeling, West Virginia, February 9, 1950,’ U.S. Senate, State Department Loyalty Investigation Committee on Foreign Relations, 81st Congress.
22.

McCarthy was apparently citing himself while describing his opinions as those of an outstanding historical figure, as commentary from the founders supports the opposite view. In 1755, Benjamin Franklin wrote that ‘those who would give up essential Liberty, to purchase a little temporary Safety, deserve neither Liberty nor Safety.’ Similarly, James Madison, ‘Father of the Constitution,’ declared that, ‘The means of defense agst. [against] foreign danger, have been always the instruments of tyranny at home.’ This quote is often cited, apparently erroneously, as, ‘If Tyranny and Oppression come to this land, it will be in the guise of fighting a foreign enemy.’ Madison, Letters and Other Writings of James Madison, op. cit. Thomas Paine wrote, ‘He that would make his own liberty secure, must guard even his enemy from oppression; for if he violates this duty, he establishes a precedent that will reach to himself.’ Paine, Thomas, Dissertation on First Principles of Government. R. Carlile, 1819.
23.

Schmidt, Regin, Red Scare: FBI and the Origins of Anticommunism in the United States, 1919–1943, Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 2000, 9; Fischer, Spider Web, op. cit., 258–259; Caute, David, The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge Under Truman and Eisenhower, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978; Heale, M. J., American Anticommunism: Combating the Enemy Within, 1830–1970, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1990; Cohen, Stanley L., ‘Decency Lost: McCarthyism Revisited,’ Counterpunch, 27 October 2017, via https://www.counterpunch.org/2017/10/27/decency-lost-mccarthyism-revisited, accessed 1 November 2017.
24.

Kofsky, The War Scare of 1948, op. cit., 104.
25.

Kofsky, ibid.
26.

Kennan, The Sources of Soviet Conduct, op. cit.
27.

Later, some such as John Lewis Gaddis gushed that, ‘rarely in the course of diplomacy, does an individual manage to express, within a single document, ideas of such force and persuasiveness that they immediately change a nation’s foreign policy,’ neglecting however to account for the official intelligence referred to in (Sect. ‘Cold War (1947–1991)’) that tells the opposite story. Gaddis, John Lewis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy, New York: Oxford University Press, 1982, 19. Others took a more restrained view, conceding that Kennan contributed ‘conceptual clarity to a foreign policy direction that was already emerging.’ Craig, Campbell, and Fredrik Logevall, America’s Cold War: The Politics of Insecurity, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009, 12.
28.

Kennan, The Sources of Soviet Conduct, op. cit.
29.

Kennan, ‘The Long Telegram,’ op. cit.
30.

Kennan, ibid.
31.

Kennan, ibid.
32.

Kennan, ibid.
33.

Kennan, ibid.
34.

Preston Jr., William, Aliens and Dissenters: Federal Suppression of Radicals 1903–1933, Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1963, 76.
35.

Van Nuys, Americanizing the West, op. cit, 46; Vaughn, Stephen, Holding Fast the Inner Lines: Democracy, Nationalism and the Committee on Public Information, Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1980; Fischer, Nick, ‘The Committee on Public Information and the Birth of US State Propaganda,’ Australasian Journal of American Studies 35, no. 1, July 2016, 51–78; Creel, George, How We Advertised America: The First Telling of the Amazing Story of the Committee on Public Information That Carried the Gospel of Americanism to Every Corner of the Globe, Harper & Brothers, 1920.
36.

Stalker, ‘Americanism,’ op. cit., 31; Foner, History of the Labor Movement, op. cit., 38.
37.

Gable, ‘Birth of an Employers’ Association,’ op. cit., 542.
38.

Gable, ibid.; Edgar, Lane, ‘Some Lessons from Past Congressional Investigations of Lobbying,’ The Public Opinion Quarterly 14, no. 1, Spring 1950: 18.
39.

Lane, ‘Some Lessons from Past Congressional Investigations of Lobbying,’ ibid., 20.
40.

NAM, ‘Where Do You Stand?’, Educational Literature #2, 3–10.
41.

NAM, ‘The Goal of the Labor Trust,’ Educational Literature #3, New York: NAM, 1912, 3–7.
42.

NAM, ‘Where Do You Stand?’ ibid., 4–9, 15.
43.

NAM, ‘The Next Step in Education,’ Educational Literature #4, New York: NAM, 1912, 3; NAM, ‘Let Us Send the Whole Boy to School,’ Educational Literature #7, New York; NAM, 1912, 9–11.
44.

NAM, ‘The Next Step in Education,’ op. cit., 16–23.
45.

See Footnote 35.
46.

O’Reilly, Kenneth, Hoover and the Un-Americans: The FBI, HUAC, and the Red Menace, Temple University Press, 1983, 168.
47.

American Business Consultants (ABC), Red Channels: The Report of Communist Influence in Radio and Television, New York: Counterattack, 1950.
48.

ABC, Red Channels, ibid., 2.
49.

Stalin, Joseph, Problems of Leninism, Foreign Languages Press, Peking, 1976, 29–30, via http://www.marx2mao.com/Stalin/FL24.html, accessed 28 August 2016.
50.

Stalin, Problems of Leninism, 179–185.
51.

ABC, Red Channels, op. cit., 2–3.
52.

Lenin, V. I., Collected Works, Vol. 10, Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1977, 172–173.
53.

ABC, Red Channels, op. cit., 6–7.
54.

‘Ellen Schrecker has suggested, based on recently opened FBI files from the Cold War years, that McCarthyism should properly be renamed “Hooverism” because of the pivotal role played by the Bureau in creating the anticommunist consensus: “For the FBI was the bureaucratic heart of the McCarthy era” Schrecker, Ellen, Many Are the Crimes. McCarthyism in America, Boston, 1998, 203,’ in Schmidt, Red Scare, op. cit., 9fn; Reagan, Ronald, Where’s the Rest of Me? New York: Dell, 1981, 186–187.
55.

Ronald Reagan, Where’s the Rest of Me? ibid.
56.

Navasky, Naming Names, op. cit., 109.
57.

Navasky, ibid.
58.

Litvak, Joseph, The Un-Americans: Jews, the Blacklist, and Stoolpigeon Culture, Duke University Press, 2009; See also Case Study I.
59.

A Report to the National Security Council—NSC 68, 12 April 1950. President’s Secretary’s File, Truman Papers, via https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/documents/pdf/10-1.pdf, accessed 30 July 2016.
60.

Drew, S. Nelson, and Paul Nitze, NSC-68: Forging the Strategy of Containment, DIANE Publishing, 1994, 4.
61.

‘It is widely recognized that the very existence of the Soviet Union constitutes aggression.’ Chomsky, Noam, Deterring Democracy, London: Verso, 1990, 14.
62.

Chomsky, Deterring Democracy, ibid., Chapter 1, ‘Cold War: Facts and Fancy,’ 26; Wolin, Sheldon, Democracy Inc: Managed Democracy and the Spectre of Inverted Totalitarianism, Princeton: Princeton UP, 2008, 28–40; Kuzmarov, Jeremy, and John Marciano, The Russians Are Coming, Again: The First Cold War as Tragedy, the Second as Farce, NYU Press, 2018, Chapter 3, ‘The Truth Is We Have Spent Trillions of Dollars on a Gigantic Hoax.’
63.

NSC 68, Truman Papers, op. cit.
64.

NSC 68, ibid.; Chomsky, Deterring Democracy, op. cit., 13.
65.

NSC 68, ibid.
66.

NSC 68, ibid.
67.

‘The deeply anti-democratic thrust of NSC68 reflects far more general commitments.’ Chomsky, Deterring Democracy, op. cit., 22.
68.

Truman, Harry S., ‘President Harry S. Truman’s Address Before a Joint Session of Congress, March 12, 1947,’ The Avalon Project, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/trudoc.asp, accessed 28 April 2016; Cardwell, NSC 68 and the Origins of the Cold War, op. cit., 81–84; Ninkovich, Frank, Modernity and Power: A History of the Domino Theory in the Twentieth Century, University of Chicago Press, 1994, 171–174; Freeland, Richard M., The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism: Foreign Policy, Domestic Politics, and Internal Security, 1946–1948, New York: Knopf, 1972, 70–81; Villiotis, Stephen, ‘From Sceptical Disinterest to Ideological Crusade: The Road to American Participation in the Greek Civil War, 1943–1949,’ Unpublished Master’s Thesis, 2013, University of Central Florida, via http://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3793&context=etd, accessed 25 June 2018.
69.

Truman, ‘Address Before a Joint Session of Congress,’ op. cit.
70.

Truman’s reference to communist terrorists is also significant; we return to it in the next case study.
71.

Truman, ‘Address Before a Joint Session of Congress,’ op. cit.
72.

Truman, ‘Address Before a Joint Session of Congress,’ ibid.
73.

Cardwell, NSC 68, op. cit., 28–57; Ninkovich, Modernity and Power, op. cit., 171–174; Resis, Albert, ‘The Churchill-Stalin Secret “Percentages” Agreement on the Balkans, Moscow, October 1944,’ The American Historical Review 83, no. 2, 1978: 368–387; Radosh, Ronald, Mary R. Habeck, and Grigorij Sevostianov, eds., Spain Betrayed: The Soviet Union in the Spanish Civil War, Yale University Press, 2001.
74.

Vulliamy, Ed, and Helena Smith, ‘Athens 1944: Britain’s Dirty Secret,’ The Guardian, 30 November 2014, via https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/30/athens-1944-britains-dirty-secret, accessed 25 June 2018; Wong, Wendy, ‘“Taking The Lead”—The Dekemvriana, British Foreign Policy and Yalta, 1944–1945,’ The Journal of Modern Hellenism 17, 2000: 191–213.
75.

Van Nuys, Americanizing the West, op. cit., 60.
76.

Maxwell, Lucia, ‘Spider Web Chart: The Socialist-Pacifist Movement in America Is an Absolutely Fundamental and Integral Part of International Socialism,’ The Dearborn Independent, XXIV, 22 March 1924: 11, via http://womhist.alexanderstreet.com/wilpf/doc3.htm, accessed 20 April 2018; ‘Revolutionary Radicalism: Its History, Purpose and Tactics with an Exposition and Discussion of the Steps Being Taken and Required to Curb It. Being the Report of the Joint Legislative Committee Investigating Seditious Activities, Filed April 24, 1920, in the State of New York,’ in Part I: Revolutionary and Subversive Movements Abroad and at Home, Albany: JB Lyon Company 2, 1920, via https://archive.org/details/revolutionaryra00luskgoog, accessed 20 April 2018; Cline, Ray, and Yonah Alexander, Terrorism: The Soviet Connection, New York: Crane Russak, 1984.
77.

Foner, Philip S., The Industrial Workers of the World, 1905–1917, New York: International Publishers, 1965, 306–348; Carey, Alex, Taking the Risk Out of Democracy, op. cit., 43.
78.

McPherson, John Bruce, The Lawrence Strike of 1912, Boston: National Association of Wool Manufacturers, 1912, 2.
79.

Hartman, E. G., The Movement to Americanise the Immigrant, New York: AMS Press, 1967; Van Nuys, Americanising the West, op. cit.; Gardner, Lloyd C., Safe for Democracy: The Anglo-American Response to Revolution, 1913–1923, New York: Oxford University Press, 1984.
80.

Carlson, Robert A., The Quest for Conformity: Americanization Through Education, New York: Wiley, 1975; Cody, Frank, ‘Americanization Courses in the Public Schools,’ The English Journal 7, no. 10, December 1918: 1–39; Issel, William, ‘Americanization, Acculturation and Social Control: School Reform Ideology in Industrial Pennsylvania, 1880–1910,’ Journal of Social History 12, no. 4, 1979: 569–590.
81.

Meyer, Stephen, ‘Adapting the Immigrant to the Line: Americanization in the Ford Factory, 1914–1921,’ Journal of Social History 14, no. 1, 1980: 70.
82.

Meyer, ‘Adapting the Immigrant to the Line,’ ibid., 74.
83.

NACLI, Annual Report 1911–1912, Boston: NACLI, 1912, 5.
84.

NACLI, Annual Report 1911–1912, Boston: NACLI, 1912, ibid.
85.

Kellor, ‘National Americanization Day—July 4th,’ 27.
86.

Van Nuys, Americanizing the West, op. cit., 106.
87.

Fischer, Spider Web, op. cit., 47–49; Fischer, ‘The Committee on Public Information,’ op. cit.; Dark Angel, op. cit., 84–93; Carey, op. cit., 58–60.
88.

Murray, Robert, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria 1919–1920, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1955, 34; Schmidt, Red Scare, op. cit., 24–27; Sisson, Edgar Grant, and National Board for Historical Service, The German-Bolshevik Conspiracy, War Information Series, Washington, DC: Committee on Public Information, 1918.
89.

Sisson, The German-Bolshevik Conspiracy, 3.
90.

Kennan, ‘The Sisson Documents,’ op. cit.
91.

Kennan, ibid., 154.
92.

Higham, Strangers in the Land, op. cit., 247; Fischer, ‘The Committee on Public Information,’ op. cit.
93.

‘It had “conscripted public opinion,” wrote Frank Cobb, editor of the New York World, “as they conscripted men and money and materials. Having conscripted it, they dealt with it as they dealt with other raw materials. They mobilized it. They put it in charge of drill sergeants. They goose-stepped it. They taught it to stand at attention and salute.”’ Murray, Red Scare, op. cit., 12.
94.

Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines, op. cit., 235.
95.

Hitler, Adolf R. Manheim, trans., Mein Kampf, Hitler, Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1971, Chapter 6, 181.
96.

Murray, Red Scare, op. cit., 13–14.
97.

Murray, Red Scare, ibid.
98.

Murray, Red Scare, ibid., 14; Van Nuys, Americanizing the West, op. cit., 60; Kohn, Stephen M., American Political Prisoners: Prosecutions Under the Espionage and Sedition Acts, Westport: Praeger, 1994; Smelser, Marshall, ‘George Washington and the Alien and Sedition Acts,’ The American Historical Review 59, no. 2, 1954–01: 322–334; Renshaw, Patrick, ‘The IWW and the Red Scare 1917–24,’ Journal of Contemporary History 3, no. 4, October 1968: 63–72.
99.

‘The character of the enemy supplied the norm for the power demands that the democratic defender of the free world chose to impose on itself.’ Wolin, Democracy Inc, op. cit., 37.
100.

See for example Avrich, Paul, Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America, AK Press, 2005; Avrich, Paul, An American Anarchist: The Life of Voltairine de Cleyre, AK Press, 2018.
101.

Schmidt, Red Scare, op. cit., 72–82.
102.

Ceplair and Englund, The Inquisition in Hollywood, op. cit., xiv.
103.

Carr, Robert K., ‘The Un-American Activities Committee,’ The University of Chicago Law Review 18, no. 3, 1951: 598–633.
104.

Weglyn, Michi, Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America’s Concentration Camps, University of Washington Press, 1996; Robinson, Greg, By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans, Harvard University Press, 2001.
105.

Feldman, op. cit., 189; O’Reilly, Hoover and the Un-Americans, op. cit., 317–318; Theoharis, Athan G., and John Stuart Cox, The Boss: J. Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988, ‘The Purge Begins,’ 281–310.
106.

Feldman, op. cit.
107.

Feldman, ibid., 191. In a deeply ironic turn of events, J. Parnell Thomas later served nine months in a federal prison for corruption, alongside several of the Hollywood screenwriters (Lester Cole and Ring Lardner Jr.) he jailed for contempt of Congress after refusing to submit to his interrogation.
108.

Feldman, op. cit.
109.

Ogden, August Raymond, The Dies Committee, Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1945; Goodman, Walter, The Committee: The Extraordinary Career of the House Committee on Un-American Activities, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1968; McNiece, Matthew A., “Un-Americans” and “Anti-Communists”: The Rhetorical Battle to Define Twentieth-Century America, PhD Thesis, Texas Christian University, 2008, via https://repository.tcu.edu/handle/116099117/4083, accessed 27 July 2016; Ceplair, Larry, Anti-Communism in Twentieth-Century America: A Critical History, ABC-CLIO, 2011.
110.

Griffith, Politics of Fear, op. cit., 32; Caute, The Great Fear, 89.
111.

House Committee on Un-American Activities, 100 Things You Should Know About Communism, Washington: United States Congress, 1949, 16.
112.

Eisenhower, Dwight D., ‘Domino Theory Principle, 1954,’ Public Papers of the Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1954, 381–390, http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~hst306/documents/domino.html, accessed 30 April 2016; Reyna, Stephen P., Deadly Contradictions: The New American Empire and Global Warring, Berghahn Books, 2016, 195–196.
113.

Chomsky, Noam, ‘Who Owns the World?’ Chomsky.info, September 2012, via https://chomsky.info/20121026/, accessed 24 June 2018; Ninkovich, Frank, The Wilsonian Century: US Foreign Policy Since 1900, University of Chicago Press, 2001, 192.
114.

Leffler, Melvyn P, ‘Adherence to Agreements: Yalta and the Experiences of the Early Cold War,’ International Security 11, no. 1, 1986: 100.
115.

Truman, ‘Address Before a Joint Session of Congress,’ op. cit.
116.

Truman, ‘Address Before a Joint Session of Congress,’ ibid.
117.

See Chapter I, ‘Moral Panics and Their Patterns.’
118.

Nitze, Paul H., NSC-68: Forging the Strategy of Containment, National Defence University, 1994.
119.

Coben, Stanley A., Mitchell Palmer: Politician, New York: Da Capo Press, 1972.
120.

Schmidt, Red Scare, op. cit., 27; Feldman, Manufacturing Hysteria, Chapter 7, ‘A Lawless Government,’ 106–128.
121.

Carey, Taking the Risk Out of Democracy, op. cit.; Feldman, Manufacturing Hysteria, ibid.; Higham, Strangers in the Land, op. cit.; Van Nuys, Americanizing the West, op. cit.; Fischer, Spiders Web, op. cit.; Fischer, ‘The Committee on Public Information,’ op. cit.
122.

Bailey, Thomas A, ‘The Sinking of the Lusitania,’ The American Historical Review 41, no. 1, 1935: 54–73; ‘If Roosevelt Had a Richard Perle,’ in Jarecki, Eugene, ed., The American Way of War: Guided Missiles, Misguided Men, and a Republic in Peril, Simon and Schuster, 2008, 44–52.
123.

Schmidt, Red Scare, op. cit., 36–38.
124.

The Espionage Act was used to prosecute Chelsea Manning for whistleblowing in July 2013, as noted above. Murray, op. cit., Chapter 13 ‘The January Raids,’ 210–222.
125.

Ceplair, Larry, and Steven Englund, The Inquisition in Hollywood: Politics in the Film Community 1930–60, Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2003, xxiii–xxix.
126.

Dmytryk, Edward, dir., Crossfire, Lon Angeles: RKO Pictures, 1947.
127.

Caute, The Great Fear, op. cit., Chapter 5, ‘The FBI and the Informers,’ 111–139; Navasky, Victor S., Naming Names, New York: Viking Press, 1980; Trumbo, Dalton, The Time of the Toad: A Study of Inquisition in America by One of the Hollywood Ten, Hollywood, CA: The Hollywood Ten, 1950; Everitt, David, A Shadow of Red: Communism and the Blacklist in Radio and Television, Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2007.
128.

Navasky, Naming Names, ibid., 92; Tucker, Robert C., and Stephen F. Cohen, eds., The Great Purge Trial, Grosset & Dunlap, 1965.
129.

Caute, The Great Fear, op. cit., Chapter 5, ‘The Congressional Inquisition,’ 85–111.
130.

Navasky, Naming Names, op. cit., 87.
131.

Navasky, ibid., 109; ‘So many “innocent people” were named by witnesses that any possibility of reply on their part became mechanically impossible, even if the Committee had shown interest in hearing such people, which it did not.’ Carr, ‘The Un-American Activities Committee,’ op. cit., 630.
132.

Navasky, ibid., 319.
133.

The Red Menace, Republic Pictures, 1949.
134.

Fischer, Spider Web, op. cit., Chapter 9, ‘Political Repression and Culture War,’ 176–204.
135.

Griffith, The Politics of Fear, op. cit., 116.; ‘McCarthyism was not so much an aberration as a product of long-term processes that favoured conservative politics.’ Heale, Michael J., McCarthy’s Americans: Red Scare Politics in State and Nation, 1935–1965, University of Georgia Press, 1998.
136.

Schmidt, Red Scare, op. cit., 84–86.
137.

Schmidt, Red Scare, ibid., 86.
138.

Kinzer, Stephen, All the Shah’s Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2003, 150–160; Abrahamian, Ervand, The Coup: 1953, the CIA, and the Roots of Modern U.S.-Iranian Relations, New York, NY: New Press, 2013; Abrahamian, Ervand, ‘The 1953 Coup in Iran,’ Science & Society, 2001, 193; Gasiorowski, Mark J., Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran, Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2004; Gasiorowski, Mark J., ‘The 1953 Coup d’état in Iran,’ International Journal of Middle East Studies 19, no. 3, 1987: 261–286; Mark J. Gasiorowski, ‘The CIA’s TPBEDAMN Operation and the 1953 Coup in Iran,’ Journal of Cold War Studies 15, no. 4, 2013: 4–24.
139.

Gasiorowski, ‘The 1953 Coup d’état in Iran,’ op. cit., 261–286; ‘Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran,’ National Security Archives, 22 June 2004, via http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/, accessed 29 September 2016; ‘CIA Confirms Role in 1953 Iran Coup: Documents Provide New Details on Mosaddeq Overthrow and Its Aftermath,’ National Security Archives, 2013, via http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB435/, accessed 14 September 2016.
140.

Nirumand, Bahman, Iran: The New Imperialism in Action, Monthly Review Press, 1969, 49.
141.

Abrahamian, ‘The 1953 Coup in Iran,’ op. cit., 193.
142.

Schlesinger, Stephen C., and Stephen Kinzer, Bitter Fruit: The Story of the American Coup in Guatemala, Boston: Harvard University, David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies, 1999, 100.
143.

Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men, ibid., 3–4, 151–152; Gasiorowski, ‘The 1953 Coup d’état in Iran,’ op. cit., 263–266.
144.

Kinzer, ibid., 156–160.
145.

Kinzer, ibid., 151; 6.
146.

Rundle, Walter G., ‘New Regime in Iran Beats Reds to Draw by Narrowest of Margins,’ United Press, Tuesday, August 25, 1953; Saghaye-Biria, Hakimeh, United States Propaganda in Iran: 1951–1953, PhD diss., Louisiana State University, 2009. Gasiorowski, ‘The 1953 Coup d’état in Iran,’ op. cit., 261–286; ‘CIA Confirms Role in 1953 Iran Coup: Documents Provide New Details on Mosaddeq Overthrow and Its Aftermath,’ National Security Archive, 2013, via http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB435/, accessed 19 September 2016; see also: Dehghan, Saeed Kamali, and Richard Norton-Taylor, ‘CIA Admits Role in 1953 Iranian Coup,’ The Guardian, 20 August 2013, via, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/19/cia-admits-role-1953-iranian-coup, accessed 19 September 2016, and The Mossadegh Project: http://www.mohammadmossadegh.com.
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Countries and regions affected included, in addition to Guatemala, Costa Rica, the Middle East, Indonesia, Haiti, Western Europe, British Guyana, Iraq, the Soviet Union, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Ecuador, Zaire, Algeria, Brazil, Peru, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Ghana, Uruguay, Chile, South Africa, Bolivia, Australia, Portugal, East Timor, Angola, Jamaica, Honduras, Nicaragua, Philippines, the Seychelles, South Yemen, South Korea, Chad, Grenada, Dutch Guiana, Libya, Panama, Afghanistan, El Salvador, Haiti, Bulgaria, Albania, Somalia, Mexico, Colombia and the former Yugoslavia. Blum, William, Rogue State: A Guide to the World’s Only Superpower, Monroe, Me.: Common Courage Press, 2005, Chapter 17, ‘A Concise History of United States Global Interventions, 1945 to the Present’; Chomsky, Noam, and Edward S. Herman, The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism: The Political Economy of Human Rights, Boston: South End Press, 1979; Chomsky, Deterring Democracy, op. cit.
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Gordon, Max, ‘A Case History of US Subversion: Guatemala, 1954,’ Science & Society, 1971, 129–155; Schlesinger and Kinzer, Bitter Fruit, op. cit.; Gleijeses, Piero, Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944–1954, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991; Immerman, Richard H, The CIA in Guatemala the Foreign Policy of Intervention, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982.
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Gordon, ‘A Case History of US Subversion,’ ibid., 138.
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Schlesinger and Kinzer, Bitter Fruit, op. cit., 101–102; Gordon, Max, ‘A Case History of US Subversion,’ ibid., 141–142.
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Gordon, ‘A Case History of US Subversion: Guatemala, 1954,’ op. cit., 132–133; Chapman, Peter, Bananas: How the United Fruit Company Shaped the World, Berkeley: Canongate, 2014.
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Schlesinger and Kinzer, Bitter Fruit, ibid., 106.
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Schlesinger and Kinzer, Bitter Fruit, ibid.; Gordon, Max, ‘A Case History of US Subversion,’ ibid., 139–140.
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Schlesinger and Kinzer, Bitter Fruit, ibid., 102.
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Warner, Michael, ‘The CIA’S Office of Policy Coordination: From NSC 10/2 to NSC 68,’ International Journal of Intelligence and Counter Intelligence 11, no. 2, 1998: 211.
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Warner, ‘The CIA’S Office of Policy Coordination,’ ibid., 213.
157.

Schlesinger and Kinzer, Bitter Fruit, op. cit., 100–101.
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Cullather, Nick, and Piero Gleijeses, Secret History: The CIA’s Classified Account of Its Operations in Guatemala, 1952–1954, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999, 43.
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Chapter 13, ‘The Longest Day,’ in Schlesinger and Kinzer, Bitter Fruit, op. cit., 191–204.
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Schlesinger and Kinzer, ibid., 80.
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Schlesinger and Kinzer, ibid., 86.
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Sanford, Victoria, Buried Secrets: Truth and Human Rights in Guatemala, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003; Brett, Roddy, The Origins and Dynamics of Genocide: Political Violence in Guatemala, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016; Malkin, Elisabeth, ‘An Apology for a Guatemalan Coup, 57 Years Later,’ New York Times, 20 October 2011, via http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/21/world/americas/an-apology-for-a-guatemalan-coup-57-years-later.html.
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Hove, ‘The Arbenz Factor,’ op. cit., 625.
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Hove, ibid.
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Hove, ibid., 633.
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For sub-fascism, see Chomsky and Herman, The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism, op. cit. Guardiola-Rivera, Oscar, Story of a Death Foretold: The Coup Against Salvador Allende, September 11, 1973, Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2013.
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For more on the parallels between the two see Chomsky, Noam, ‘American Foreign Policy,’ The Noam Chomsky Archive, 1985, via https://chomsky.info/19850319/, accessed 13 December 2016.
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‘Major Describe Moves,’ The New York Times, February 8, 1968, 14; Miller, Michael D., Former Captain, US Army Corps of Engineers, ‘Saving Ben Tre: About the famous quote of the Vietnamese 1968 Tet Offensive,’ http://www.nhe.net/BenTreVietnam/, accessed 8 December 2016.
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For more on the linkages see Grandin, Greg, Empire’s Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism, The American Empire Project, 1st ed., New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006; Gedicks, Al, ‘The Nationalization of Copper in Chile: Antecedents and Consequences,’ Review of Radical Political Economics 5, no. 3, 1973: 1–25.
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Nace, Gangs of America, ibid., 34.
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Nace, ibid., 26–27.
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Lugosi, Charles I., ‘Conforming to the Rule of Law: When Person and Human Being Finally Mean the Same Thing in Fourteenth Amendment Jurisprudence,’ Issues in Law & Medicine 22, Fall 2006: 119.
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Swisher, Carl Brent, ‘Motivation and Political Technique,’ The California Constitutional Convention 1878–1879, New York: Da Capo, 1969, 78.
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Hartmann, Unequal Protection, op. cit., 104; Nace, Gangs of America, op. cit., 22.
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Hartmann, Unequal Protection, ibid.; Nace, Gangs of America, ibid., County of Santa Clara V. Southern Pac. R. Co. People of the State of California V. Central Pac. R. Co. Same V. Southern Pac. R. Co, Legal Information Institute, via https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/118/394, accessed 18 September 2016.
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Hartmann, Unequal Protection, op. cit., 45–156, 105.
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Hartmann, Unequal Protection, ibid., 121.
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Kelley, Robert Lloyd, The Transatlantic Persuasion; the Liberal-Democratic Mind in the Age of Gladstone, New York: Knopf, 1969, 137.
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Hartmann, Unequal Protection, op. cit., 91; Dawley, Alan, Changing the World: American Progressives in War and Revolution, Princeton University Press, 2013, 81.
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For the literature on nativism in the United States, see, Higham, Strangers in the Land, op. cit.; Horsman, Reginald, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Hofstadter, The Paranoid Style in American Politics, op. cit.; Bennett, David, The Party of Fear: From Nativist Movements to the New Right in American History, Vintage, 1995; Davis, David Brion, ed., The Fear of Conspiracy: Images of Un-American Subversion from the Revolution to the Present, Cornell University Press, 1970; Knobel, Dale T., America for the Americans: The Nativist Movement in the United States, New York: Twayne Publishers, 1996; Coben, Stanley, ‘A Study in Nativism: The American Red Scare of 1919–20,’ Political Science Quarterly 79, no. 1, 1964–03: 52–75; Earle, Carvile, and Cao Changyong, ‘Frontier Closure and the Involution of American Society, 1840–1890,’ Journal of the Early Republic 13, no. 2: 163.
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Van Nuys, Americanizing the West, op. cit., 16.
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Van Nuys, ibid., 18–19. For more on Otherness and Othering in general, see Saïd, Edward, Orientalism, Penguin, 2016.
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Van Nuys, ibid., 18–19.
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Harris, Cheryl, ‘Whiteness as Property,’ Harvard Law Review 106, no. 8, 1993: 1741.
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Harris, ‘Whiteness as Property,’ ibid., 1742.
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NAC, Americanising a City: The Campaign for the Detroit Night Schools Conducted in Cooperation with the Detroit Board of Commerce and Board of Education, August-September 1915, New York: NAC, 1915, 3–8; Korman, Gerd, ‘Americanization at the Factory Gate,’ Industrial and Labo Relations Review 18, no. 3, 1965: 396–419; Barrett, James R., ‘Americanization from the Bottom Up: Immigration and the Remaking of the Working Class in the United States, 1880–1930,’ The Journal of American History 79, no. 3, December 1992: 996–1020.
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Little, Douglas, American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945, University of North Carolina Press, 2008; Nayak, Meghana V., and Christopher Malone, ‘American Orientalism and American Exceptionalism: A Critical Rethinking of US Hegemony,’ International Studies Review 11, no 2, 2009: 253–276.
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See for example, Miller, Stuart Creighton, “Benevolent Assimilation”: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982.
200.

‘Once the battle lines between communism and the “free society” were drawn, the economy became untouchable for purposes other than “strengthening” capitalism. The ultimate merger would be between capitalism and democracy. Once the identity and security of democracy were successfully identified with the Cold War and with the methods for waging it, the state was set for the intimidation of most politics left of right.’ Wolin, Democracy Inc, op. cit., 34.
201.

Chomsky, Deterring Democracy, op. cit., Chapter 1, ‘Cold War Facts and Fancy.’
202.

Shoup, Laurence H., and William Minter, Imperial Brain Trust: The Council on Foreign Relations and United States Foreign Policy, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977; Chomsky, Noam, ‘The Grand Area,’ in What Uncle Sam Really Wants, Real Story, Berkeley: Odonian Press, 1992; Domhoff, G. William, The Power Elite and the State: How Policy Is Made in America, New York: A. de Gruyter, 1990, 160.
203.

Wallerstein, Immanuel, ‘The World-System After the Cold War,’ Journal of Peace Research 30, no. 1, 1993: 1–6; Chomsky, ‘We Own the World,’ op. cit.; ‘The terminology is revealing,’ Chomsky observes. ‘It is only possible to lose something that one owns … The tacit assumption was that the US owned China, by right, along with most of the rest of the world, much as post-war planners assumed.’ Chomsky, Noam, ‘“Losing” the World: American Decline in Perspective, Pt. 1,’ The Guardian, 12 February 2012, via https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2012/feb/14/losing-the-world-american-decline-noam-chomsky, accessed 20 December 2016.
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Shoup and Minter, Imperial Brain Trust, ibid., 5.
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Domhoff, ‘The Council on Foreign Relations and the Grand Area,’ op. cit., 3.
207.

Domhoff, ibid., 10–11.
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Domhoff, ibid., 12.
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Council on Foreign Relations, ‘The Lasting Legacy of George F. Kennan,’ Cfr.org, 4 June 2012, via http://www.cfr.org/world/lasting-legacy-george-f-kennan/p35268, accessed 18 December 2016.
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Kennan, George F., ‘Memo PPS23,’ 28 February 1948, U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1948, Vol. 1.2, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1976, 509–529, via https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Memo_PPS23_by_George_Kennan, accessed 17 June 2018.
211.

Cardwell, NSC 68, op. cit., Chapter 3, ‘Multilateralism, the Dollar Gap, and the Origins of the Cold War,’ 28–58.
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McCormick, Thomas, America’s Half-Century: US Foreign Policy in the Cold War and After, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 5, quoted in Cardwell, NSC 68, ibid., 30–34.
213.

Cardwell, ibid., 59.
214.

Cardwell, ibid., 51.
215.

Cardwell, ibid., 21, 23–44.
216.

Cardwell, ibid., 44; ‘They want peace and seek to secure the peace. That means that the present war scare does not come from that direction. I think that the present war scare is aroused by the actions of certain political groups who are engaged in propaganda for a new war and are thus sowing the seeds of dissension and uncertainty.’ Stalin, Joseph, ‘Replies to Questions Put by Mr. Eddie Gilmore, Associated Press Correspondent,’ 22 March, 1946, in J. V. Stalin on Post-War International Relations, Soviet News, 1947, via https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1946/03/22.htm, accessed 20 December 2016.
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Gabriel Kolko, The Politics of War: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1943–1945, NY: Random House, 1968; Broué, Pierre, and Emil Témine, The Revolution and the Civil War in Spain, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1972; Peirats, José, The CNT in the Spanish Revolution, Vol. 1, PM Press, 2011; Wolfe, Alan, The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Threat: Domestic Sources of the Cold War Consensus, South End Press, 1984.
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Klein, Naomi, ‘40 Years Ago, This Chilean Exile Warned Us About the Shock Doctrine. Then He Was Assassinated,’ The Nation, 21 September 2016, via https://www.thenation.com/article/40-years-ago-this-chilean-exile-warned-us-about-the-shock-doctrine-then-he-was-assassinated, accessed 20 December 2016; Letlier, Orlando, ‘The “Chicago Boys” in Chile: Economic Freedom’s Awful Toll,’ The Nation, 21 September 2016, via https://www.thenation.com/article/the-chicago-boys-in-chile-economic-freedoms-awful-toll/, accessed 20 December 2016.
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Klein, Naomi, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism, Melbourne: Allen Lane, 2007, Chapter 3, ‘States of Shock: The Bloody Birth of the Counter-Revolution,’ 75–97.
220.

See Case Study III.
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Kofsky, The War Scare of 1948, op. cit.
222.

Kofsky, ibid., 37–38.
223.

Kofsky, ibid., 1.
224.

Kofsky, ibid., 10.
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Kofsky, ibid., 82, 88.
226.

Kofsky, ibid., 134.
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Kofsky, ibid., 198.

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Debney, B.M. (2020). Case Study 2: Communist Panic. In: The Oldest Trick in the Book. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5569-5_6

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