¹ National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from Their Families, Bringing Them Home: National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from Their Families Sydney, 275.

² Estimates ran as high as 250,000 (Australian, 30 May 2000).

³ Quadrant published Windschuttle's three-part “The Myths of Frontier Massacres in Australian History” between October and December 2000. Precontact Aboriginal Australian population estimates range from 200,000 to 1,250,000. See David Horton, ed. The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia, 2 vols. Canberra, 2:889; Attwood, Bain, “The Burden of the Past in the Present,” in Reconciliation: Essays on Australian Reconciliation, ed. Grattan, MichelleMelbourne, 258Google Scholar.

⁴ For more, see Macintyre, Stuart and Clark, Anna, The History Wars MelbourneGoogle Scholar.

⁵ Windschuttle, Keith, The Fabrication of Aboriginal History: Volume One, Van Diemen's Land, 1803–1847 SydneyGoogle Scholar.

⁶ Barta, Tony, “Relations of Genocide: Land and Lives in the Colonization of Australia,” in Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death, ed. Walliman, Isidor and Dobkowski, Michael N. (New York, 1987), 238Google Scholar.

⁷ Precontact Aboriginal Tasmanian population statistics are contested. David Davies claimed an 1803 population of 15,000 (The Last of the Tasmanians [Sydney, 1973], 120). Archeologist Rhys Jones estimated 3,000–5,000, but archaeologist Colin Pardoe argued, “Population estimates for [precontact] Tasmania need upward revision. In ecological and evolutionary terms there is scope to question [Jones’s] estimate of 3,000–5,000.” Pardoe also suggested reconsidering “carrying capacity data” (“Isolation and Evolution in Tasmania,” Current Anthropology 32, no. 1 [February 1991]: 1–21, 11); historian N. J. B. Plomley estimated 4,000–6,000 (The Aboriginal/Settler Clash in Van Diemen's Land: 1803–1831 [Hobart, 1992], 10); Henry Reynolds suggested “5,000–7,000” in Fate of a Free People: A Radical Reexamination of the Tasmanian Wars Ringwood, 4.

⁸ Plomley, N. J. B., ed., Weep in Silence: A History of the Flinders Island Aboriginal Settlement with the Flinders Island Journal of George Augustus Robinson Hobart, 172Google Scholar. Two were hanged in Melbourne and eleven sent to Hobart's Orphan School; see Ryan, Lyndall, The Aboriginal Tasmanians, 2nd ed. St. Leonards, 197, 196, 200Google Scholar.

⁹ Several “full-descent” Aboriginal Tasmanians survived on Kangaroo Island (Taylor, Rebe, Unearthed: The Aboriginal Tasmanians of Kangaroo Island [Kent Town, 2002], 127Google Scholar).

¹⁰ Dalrymple, Theodore, “Why Intellectuals Like Genocide,” New English Review (July 2007), http://www.newenglishreview.org/custpage.cfm/frm/8744/sec_id/8744Google Scholar.

¹¹ Melville, Henry, The History of Van Diemen's Land, From the Year 1824 to 1835, ed. Mackaness, George 1836; Hobart, 30, 56–57Google Scholar.

¹² Merivale, Herman, Lectures on Colonization and Colonies, Delivered before the University of Oxford in 1839, 1840, & 1841, 2 vols. London, 2:150, 153Google Scholar. Merivale later became a senior colonial office official.

¹³ Australian Dictionary of Biography, 17 vols. Melbourne, 2:590.

¹⁴ John West, The History of Tasmania, 2 vols. Launceston, 2:18.

¹⁵ Bonwick, James, The Last of the Tasmanians; or, The Black War of Van Diemen's Land LondonGoogle Scholar; Calder, J. E., Some Account of the Wars, Extirpation, Habits, &c., of the Native Tribes of Tasmania HobartGoogle Scholar; Bonwick, James, The Lost Tasmanian Race LondonGoogle Scholar.

¹⁶ Twain, Mark, Following the Equator: A Journey Around the World Hartford, CT, 256Google Scholar; Wells, H. G., War of the Worlds London, 5Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Raphaël Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress Washington, DC, xi–xii.

¹⁸ United Nations, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 9 December 1948, Treaty Series, vol. 78, no. 1021, 280.

¹⁹ Clive Turnbull, Black War: The Extermination of the Tasmanian Aborigines Melbourne; Raphaël Lemkin, “Tasmania,” edited, and with commentary, by Ann Curthoys, Patterns of Prejudice 39, no. 2 (June 2005): 170–96, quotations on 179 and 178, respectively. Lemkin relied heavily on James Bonwick's work.

²⁰ For Australian genocide-related articles in Quadrant and elsewhere, see Ben Kiernan, “Cover-up and Denial of Genocide,” Critical Asian Studies 34, no. 2 June: 163–92.

²¹ Ryan, Aboriginal Tasmanians, 255.

²² Leo Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Uses in the Twentieth Century New Haven, CT, 40.

²³ Robin Winks, “A System of Commands: The Infrastructure of Race Contact,” in Studies in British Imperial History, ed. George Martell (Hong Kong, 1986), 24; Barta, “Relations of Genocide,” 238.

²⁴ Diamond, Jared, “In Black and White,” Natural History 97, no. 10 (October 1988): 8–14Google Scholar.

²⁵ Reynolds, Fate of a Free People, 53.

²⁶ Moses, A. Dirk, “An Antipodean Genocide? The Origins of the Genocidal Moment in the Colonization of Australia,” Journal of Genocide Research 2, no. 1 (March 2000): 89–106, 99CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Moses later suggested, with respect to Australia, that, “where genocide was not consciously willed, then it was implicitly intended in the sense of … silent condoning” (“Genocide and Settler Society in Australian History,” in Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History, ed. A. Dirk Moses [New York, 2004], 30).

²⁷ Reynolds, Henry, “Genocide in Tasmania?” in Moses, Genocide and Settler Society, 147Google Scholar.

²⁸ Windschuttle, Fabrication, 386, 364, 297, 364.

²⁹ For the Australian debate, see Robert Manne, “Introduction,” in Whitewash, ed. Robert Manne Melbourne, 10–11; British historian William Rubinstein quoted Windschuttle on Tasmania to bolster his interpretation of British imperialism as benign paternalism (Genocide: A History [Harlow, 2004], 66–67). Historian Ben Kiernan attacked the veracity and logic of Windschuttle's thesis (“Cover-up and Denial,” 180–81).

³⁰ Windschuttle, Fabrication, 399.

³¹ Yi-fu Tuan, Landscapes of Fear New York, 213.

³² Hobart Town Gazette and Southern Reporter, 21 September 1816, 2; Thomas Atkins, Reminiscences of Twelve Years’ Residence in Tasmania and New South Wales; Norfolk Island and Moreton Bay; Calcutta, Madras, and Cape Town; the United States of America; and the Canadas Malvern, 5, 10.

³³ William Henry Breton, Excursions in New South Wales, Western Australia, and Van Diemen's Land, During the Years 1830, 1831, 1832, and 1833 London, 341.

³⁴ Lieutenant-Governor Collins to Lord Hobart, 3 August 1804, in Fredrik Watson, ed., Historical Records of Australia, 3rd ser. (hereafter HRA.3), 6 vols. (Sydney, 1921–), 1:257.

³⁵ Collins to Governor King, 28 September 1805, in Watson, HRA.3, 1:327–28.

³⁶ Turnbull, Black War, 38; Collins to Governor Bligh, 18 October 1806, in Watson, HRA.3, 1:380.

³⁷ Lieutenant-Governor Arthur to Secretary Sir George Murray, 20 November 1830; Correspondence between Lieutenant-Governor Arthur and His Majesty's Secretary of State for the Colonies, on the Subject of the Military Operations Lately Carried Out Against the Aboriginal Inhabitants of Van Diemen's Land; House of Commons Parliamentary Papers (HCPP), 1831 (259), IXI, 60.

³⁸ Collins to Bligh, 26 January 1808, in Watson, HRA.3, 1:395.

³⁹ Lieutenant-Governor Collins to Viscount Castlereagh, 2 August 1806, in Watson, HRA.3, 1:369.

⁴⁰ Robert Hughes, The Fatal Shore New York, 371.

⁴¹ Melville, History, 13; James Ross, The Settler in Van Diemen's Land (1836; Melbourne, 1975), 17.

⁴² West, History of Tasmania, 1:29.

⁴³ Edward Curr, Account of the Colony of Van Diemen's Land (1824; Hobart, 1967), 10.

⁴⁴ Arthur to Earl Bathurst, 3 July 1825, in Watson, HRA.3, 4:289.

⁴⁵ 5 June 1827 journal entry, in Anne McKay, ed., Journals of the Land Commissioners for Van Diemen's Land: 1826–1828 Hobart, 56.

⁴⁶ Colonial Times, 22 June 1827, 2.

⁴⁷ A. Maconochie, Convict Discipline, Van Diemen's Land ([London], 1838), 6.

⁴⁸ Curr, Account, 120.

⁴⁹ Peter Cunningham, Two Years in New South Wales, 2 vols. (London, 1827), 2:192–93.

⁵⁰ Atkins, Reminiscences, 16.

⁵¹ Douglas Hay, “Property, Authority and the Criminal Law,” in Douglas Hay, Peter Linebaugh, John G. Rule, E. P. Thompson, and Cal Winslow, Albion's Fatal Tree: Crime and Society in Eighteenth-Century England (New York, 1975), 62–63.

⁵² Launceston Advertiser, 3 August 1829, 2.

⁵³ Colonial Times, 1 December 1826, 2.

⁵⁴ Atkins, Reminiscences, 16; Examination of Richard Pitt, 9 May 1820, in Watson, HRA.3, 3:486; Hobart Town Gazette, 10 August 1816, 2, 14 December 1816, 1, 8 November 1817, 1; Melville, History, 15.

⁵⁵ A. G. L. Shaw, Sir George Arthur, Bart, 1758–1854 Melbourne, 87.

⁵⁶ Lloyd Robson, The Convict Settlers of Australia: An Enquiry into the Origin and Character of the Convicts Transported to New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, 1787–1852 Melbourne, 102.

⁵⁷ Colonial Times (Hobart), 1 December 1826, 2.

⁵⁸ Launceston Advertiser, 9 November 1829, 2.

⁵⁹ Cunningham, Two Years, 2:261, 309.

⁶⁰ West, History of Tasmania, 1:29, 32.

⁶¹ For solitary confinement, see Examination of J. B. Boothman, 15 April 1820, in Watson, HRA.3, 3:401; and John Henderson, Observations on the Colonies of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land Calcutta, 20; for iron collars, see Hobart Town Gazette, 17 August 1816, 1, and 27 September 1817, 2; for stocks, see Hobart Town Gazette, 27 September 1817, 2.

⁶² Examination of R. W. Owen, 15 April 1820, in Watson, HRA.3, 3:408.

⁶³ Report by Sorell, 9 June 1824, in Watson, HRA.3, 4:150.

⁶⁴ David Burn, A Picture of Van Diemen's Land: A Facsimile of a Work Published in “The Colonial Magazine,” 1840–41 Hobart, 63; Launceston Advertiser, 9 November 1829, 2.

⁶⁵ James Bonwick, The Bushrangers; Illustrating the Early Days of Van Diemen's Land Melbourne, 21–22.

⁶⁶ James Backhouse, 18 June 1832 letter, in Extracts from the letters of James Backhouse whilst engaged in a religious visit to Van Dieman's Land, New South Wales, and South Africa, 2 vols. London, 1:35.

⁶⁷ Backhouse, James, A Narrative of a Visit to the Australian Colonies London, 49, 50Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ Knopwood, Robert, The Diary of the Reverend Knopwood: 1803–1808, ed. Nicholls, MaryLaunceston, 472Google Scholar; Arthur to Lieutenant Wright, 25 June 1824, in Watson, HRA.3, 5:632.

⁶⁹ According to Thomas Lempriere, some called Port Arthur “Earthly Hell” (The Penal Settlements of Early Van Diemen's Land [1839; Tasmania, 1954], 60). Burn was one of them (Picture of Van Diemen's Land, 164).

⁷⁰ Charles Darwin, The Voyage of the Beagle (1839; New York, 1909), 471.

⁷¹ Bonwick, Bushrangers, 38.

⁷² Lempriere, Penal Settlements, 89, 94.

⁷³ Colonial Times, 5 January 1827, 3, 12 January 1827, 4, 6 July 1827, 4, 24 August 1827, 4; for 1827 population see Plomley, Aboriginal/Settler Clash, 25.

⁷⁴ Gatrell, V. A. C., The Hanging Tree: Execution and the English People, 1770–1868 Oxford, 575Google Scholar. Census takers recorded 11,977,663 people in England and Wales in 1821 and 13,897,187 in 1831 (HCPP, 1822 [8] XXI, 631, 1833 [149] XXXVI–XXXVII, xii).

⁷⁵ Hobart Town Gazette, 8 June 1816, 1; Curr, Account, 184.

⁷⁶ Lycett, Joseph, Views in Australia or New South Wales, & Van Diemen's Land London, 13Google Scholar.

⁷⁷ Hobart Town Gazette, 23 November 1816, 1.

⁷⁸ Cunningham, Two Years, 2:195.

⁷⁹ Wallace, H., 10 September 1825 letter, in Tasmanian Letters, 1824–1852, ed. Richards, JackChristchurch, 10Google Scholar.

⁸⁰ Knopwood, Diary, 479. Newspapers regularly reported murders by bushrangers.

⁸¹ Henderson, Observations, 43; Karl Von Stieglitz, Entally (1921): Pageant of a Pioneer Family: 1792–1912 n.p., 23, 31.

⁸² For bushrangers’ beheadings see Hobart Town Gazette, 29 March 1817, 2; Ross, Settler, 23; Curr, Account, 189.

⁸³ Knopwood, Diary, 138, 143; “court martial” quoted in Knopwood, Diary, 201–2.

⁸⁴ In 1817, the Hobart Town Gazette published rewards information in sixteen different issues.

⁸⁵ Hobart Town Gazette, 6 September 1817, 1.

⁸⁶ Colonial Times, 14 October 1825, 4.

⁸⁷ The Colonial Times (6 January 1826) reported “upwards of 200 soldiers, and 100 volunteers … in close persuit” of bushangers; for an example of increased and expanded bounties see the Colonial Times, 10 March 1826, 1.

⁸⁸ Davis, Richard P., The Tasmanian Gallows: A Study of Capital Punishment Hobart, 13Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ Curr, Account, 207; Lycett, Views, 14.

⁹⁰ Prinsep, Augustus, “Letter VII,” in The journal of a Voyage from Calcutta to Van Diemen's Land: Comprising a Description of that Colony During a Six Months' Residence: From Original Letters, selected by Mrs. A. Prinsep London, 111Google Scholar.

⁹¹ Backhouse, 25 June 1832 letter, in Extracts, 1:44.

⁹² Melville, History, 55.

⁹³ Atkinson, Alan, The Europeans in Australia, 2 vols. Oxford, 2:157Google Scholar.

⁹⁴ Ibid., 2:374 n. 15; Websters International Dictionary Springfield, 531. For the etymology of “exterminate,” see Ben Kiernan, Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur New Haven, CT, 15.

⁹⁵ Colonial Times, 5 January 1827, 2; Arthur to Murray, 20 November 1830, HCPP, 60.

⁹⁶ Arthur to Secretary Huskinson, 17 April 1828, HCPP, 4; Report of the Aborigines Committee, 19 March 1830, and Arthur to Murray, 20 November 1830, HCPP, 39, 60.

⁹⁷ James Hobbs to Aborigines Committee, 9 March 1830, and Aborigines Committee, 19 March 1830, HCPP, 49, 36.

⁹⁸ Bonwick, Last of the Tasmanians, 61.

⁹⁹ Arthur to Murray, 20 November 1830, HCPP, 60.

¹⁰⁰ Rowland Hassall to his father, 17 March 1819, Rowland Hassall Papers, vol. 2, pt. 1, 236–37.

¹⁰¹ Hobart Town Gazette, 13 March 1819, 1.

¹⁰² Quoted in Aborigines Committee, 19 March 1830, HCPP, 38.

¹⁰³ General Orders, 7 January 1805, in Watson, HRA.3, 1:529.

¹⁰⁴ See Collins's January 29, 1810 proclamation quoted in Aborigines Committee, 19 March 1830, HCPP, 38; and Sorell's 24 May 1817 public warning, Hobart Town Gazette, 24 May 1817, 1.

¹⁰⁵ Windschuttle, Keith, “The Myths of Frontier Massacres in Australian History (Part II): The Fabrication of the Aboriginal Death Toll,” Quadrant 44, no. 11 (November 2000): 17–30, 23Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ For population estimate see Plomley, Aboriginal/Settler Clash, 123; Arthur to Murray, 25 August 1830, HCPP, 19.

¹⁰⁷ Plomley, Aboriginal/Settler Clash, 5.

¹⁰⁸ Aborigines Committee, 19 March 1830, and Kelly to Aborigines Committee, 10 March 1830, HCPP, 37, 51; Reynolds, Fate of a Free People, 88.

¹⁰⁹ Former marine Robert Evans recollected that in 1804, “some children [were] taken” Robert Evans to Aborigines Committee, 16 March 1830, HCPP.

¹¹⁰ Quoted in Aborigines Committee, 19 March 1830, HCPP, 36.

¹¹¹ Robert Knopwood to Aborigines Committee, 11 March 1830, HCPP, 53.

¹¹² Hobart Town Gazette, 13 March 1819, 1.

¹¹³ Colonial Times, 5 May 1826, 4.

¹¹⁴ Arthur to Viscount Goderich, 10 January 1828, HCPP, 2.

¹¹⁵ Melville, History, 140.

¹¹⁶ W. Stewart to Secretary Campbell, 28 September 1815, in Watson, HRA.3, 2:576.

¹¹⁷ George Augustus Robinson, 10 October 1829 journal entry, in Friendly Mission: The Tasmanian Journals and Papers of George Augustus Robinson, 1829–1834, ed. N. J. B. Plomley Kingsgrove, 82; for abductions see: 194, 246, 249, 271, 290–91, 293, 349, 417, 451–52, 461–62, 576, 675–76, 801; for murders: 246, 249, 293, 301; for torments: 184, 249, 256–57, 272, 274, 295, 308, 342.

¹¹⁸ James Hobbs to Aborigines Committee, 9 March 1830, HCPP, 50.

¹¹⁹ Kelly to Aborigines Committee, 10 March 1830, HCPP, 51; for venereal diseases among Aborigines in the 1820s, see Cunningham, Two Years, 2:45.

¹²⁰ Knopwood, Diary, 182; Robinson, Friendly Mission, 257, 271, 293, 295, 751.

¹²¹ Robinson, Friendly Mission, 88, 344, 346, 506, 553.

¹²² Robinson, 21 April 1831 journal entry, in Friendly Mission, 344.

¹²³ Melville, History, 31.

¹²⁴ Shaw, Sir George Arthur, 128. Windschuttle has noted William Tibbs's 1824 trial and conviction for the manslaughter of a black man. James Boyce has persuasively argued that the victim was likely a visiting ship's nonwhite crewmember (“Fantasy Island,” in Manne, Whitewash, 36–37). Tibbs's “sentence was later reversed and he was discharged” (Plomley, Weep in Silence, 43 n. 42).

¹²⁵ Windschuttle disputed Reynolds's Fate of a Free People argument that Aboriginal Tasmanians fought a guerrilla war. Windschuttle claimed that primary sources documented no Aboriginal Tasmanian military strategies or nationalistic rhetoric and that their violence was never more than “robbery, assault and murder” (Fabrication, 95–114, 130). However, Windschuttle's argument ignored 1830s sources. A letter to the Colonial Times described Aborigines’ “declaration of war” (Colonial Times, 26 February 1830, 3). Arthur's Executive Council described Aboriginal “acts of warfare” Executive Council Minutes, 27 August 1830, HCPP. Melville mentioned “the Guerilla war” repeatedly (History, 33, 91, 106).

¹²⁶ Colonial Times, 1 December 1826, 2.

¹²⁷ Arthur to Goderich, 10 January 1828, HCPP, 4.

¹²⁸ Robinson, 23 November 1829 journal entry, in Friendly Mission, 88.

¹²⁹ Backhouse, 21 September 1832 letter, in Extracts, 1:57.

¹³⁰ Quoted in Reynolds, Fate of a Free People, 48.

¹³¹ John Connor, The Australian Frontier Wars, 1788–1838 Sydney, 89.

¹³² Hobart Town Gazette, 2 December 1826, 1.

¹³³ Earl Bathurst to Governor Darling, 14 July 1825, in Historical Records of Australia, ser. 1, 26 vols. Sydney, 7:21.

¹³⁴ Collins to King, 15 May 1804, in Watson, HRA.3, 1:238.

¹³⁵ Knopwood, Diary, 273.

¹³⁶ H. Wallace to J. Wallace, 10 September 1825, in Richards, Tasmanian Letters, 8.

¹³⁷ Arthur to Under Secretary Hay, 15 November 1826, in Watson, HRA.3, 5:435.

¹³⁸ Burn, Picture of Van Diemen's Land, 22.

¹³⁹ Colonial Times, 26 January 1827, 3.

¹⁴⁰ Executive Council Minutes, 31 October 1828, HCPP, 11.

¹⁴¹ Arthur to Murray, 4 November 1828, and Arthur to Murray, 4 April 1831, HCPP, 9, 79.

¹⁴² 27 November 1827 journal entry, in McKay, Journals, 67; Prinsep, Journal, 79; Breton, Excursions, 405; Cunningham, Two Years, 2:46.

¹⁴³ Backhouse, 9 February 1832 letter, in Extracts, 1:15.

¹⁴⁴ Robinson, 5 August 1830 and 23 November 1829 journal entries, in Friendly Mission, 194, 88.

¹⁴⁵ Atkins, Reminiscences, 14.

¹⁴⁶ Rodric O’Connor to Aborigines Committee 17 March 1830, HCPP, 54; Breton, Excursions, 400.

¹⁴⁷ Melville, History, 57.

¹⁴⁸ Atkins, Reminiscences, 14.

¹⁴⁹ Colonial Times, 1 December 1826, 2. The paper later warned, “they must be removed; or they will be shot like quails” (Colonial Times, 27 July 1827, 2).

¹⁵⁰ Colonial Times, 5 January 1827, 2.

¹⁵¹ Quoted in Gwyneth Dow and Hume Dow, Landfall in Van Diemen's Land: The Steels’ Quest for Greener Pastures Footscray, 45.

¹⁵² Colonial Times, 11 May 1827, 2, and 6 July 1827, 4.

¹⁵³ Gilbert Robertson to Aborigines Committee, 3 March 1830, HCPP, 49.

¹⁵⁴ George Hobler, The Diaries of Pioneer George Hobler, October 6 1800–December 13 1882, 5 vols. California, 1:40.

¹⁵⁵ Rosalie Hare and Ida Lee, The Voyage of the Caroline from England to Van Diemen's Land and Batavia in 1827–28 London, 41.

¹⁵⁶ For more on this massacre, see Ian McFarlane, “Cape Grim,” in Manne, Whitewash, 277–98.

¹⁵⁷ Plomley, Aboriginal/Settler Clash, 26–27.

¹⁵⁸ Reproduced in Bonwick, Last of the Tasmanians, 85.

¹⁵⁹ Arthur to Goderich, 10 January 1828, and Arthur to Huskinson, 17 April 1828, HCPP, 2, 7.

¹⁶⁰ Melville, History, 76.

¹⁶¹ Plomley, Aboriginal/Settler Clash, 26, 27.

¹⁶² Reynolds, Fate of a Free People, 100.

¹⁶³ Connor, Australian Frontier Wars, 12, 14.

¹⁶⁴ Colonial Times, 27 August 1830, 3.

¹⁶⁵ Colonial Times, 16 July 1830, 3.

¹⁶⁶ Settler W. Clark described whites’ superior firepower: “Two or three men, well armed, need never fear an open attack from [Aborigines], however numerous” (Colonial Times, 13 November 1829, 3).

¹⁶⁷ Wedge, John Helder, 23 March 1828 entry, in The Diaries of John Helder Wedge, 1824–1835, ed. Crawford, Justice, Ellis, W. F., and Stancombe, G. H.Devonport, 44Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁸ Ross, Settler, 26.

¹⁶⁹ Colonial Times, 18 September 1829, 4.

¹⁷⁰ Twain, Following the Equator, 267.

¹⁷¹ Colonial Times, 6 July 1827, 4.

¹⁷² Arthur to Murray, 15 April 1830, HCPP, 16.

¹⁷³ Cunningham, Two Years, 2:32–33.

¹⁷⁴ Quoted in Ryan, Aboriginal Tasmanians, 99.

¹⁷⁵ Launceston Advertiser, 9 February 1829, 4.

¹⁷⁶ Aborigines Committee, 19 March 1830, HCPP, 38.

¹⁷⁷ Sherwin to Aborigines Committee, 23 February 1830, HCPP, 47.

¹⁷⁸ Arthur to Murray, 4 November 1828, HCPP, 11–12.

¹⁷⁹ Arthur was not the last British colonial governor to trade conciliation toward nonwhites for martial law and extreme force. Historian Catherine Hall has described how Edward Eyre was initially “sympathetic to Aboriginal peoples, [and] became associated with Governor Grey's policy of assimilation in South Australia.” Later, as “lieutenant-governor of the South Island of New Zealand,” he “[attempted] to foster amicable relations between black and white.” However, after some Jamaicans rebelled in 1865, Governor Eyre declared martial law, and troops under his command “executed 439 people, flogged more than 600 men and women, and burnt more than 1,000 homes” (Civilizing Subjects: Colony and Metropole in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 [Chicago, 2002], xv, 43, 46, 23).

¹⁸⁰ Executive Council Minutes, 31 October 1828, Arthur to Murray, 4 November 1828, Murray to Arthur, 25 August 1829, HCPP, 11, 9, 14.

¹⁸¹ Arthur to Murray, 4 November 1828, HCPP, 12.

¹⁸² Colonial Times, 24 September 1830, 3.

¹⁸³ Shaw, Sir George Arthur, 125–26.

¹⁸⁴ Ryan, Lyndall, “Who Is the Fabricator?” in Manne, Whitewash, 250Google Scholar.

¹⁸⁵ Colonial Times, 24 September 1830, 3.

¹⁸⁶ Melville, History, 71.

¹⁸⁷ Hobart Town Courier, 13 December 1828, 2.

¹⁸⁸ Melville, History, 79.

¹⁸⁹ Colonial Times, 2 January 1829, 3, 30 January 1829, 3, and 8 September 1829, 3; on 1 September 1829 Batman reported attacking and killing or mortally injuring thirteen Aborigines and then murdering two captured during the attack: Alastair Cambell, John Batman and the Aborigines Melbourne, 32.

¹⁹⁰ Tasmanian and Austral-Asiatic Review, 26 February 1830, 7.

¹⁹¹ O’Connor to Aborigines Committee, 17 March 1830, HCPP, 55.

¹⁹² Quoted in Reynolds, “Genocide in Tasmania?” 141.

¹⁹³ Launceston Advertiser, 15 February 1830, 3.

¹⁹⁴ Colonial Times, 27 August 1830, 3.

¹⁹⁵ Colonial Times, 24 September 1830, 3.

¹⁹⁶ Robinson, 10 October 1830 letter, in Friendly Mission, 435.

¹⁹⁷ Robertson to Aborigines Committee, 3 March 1830, HCPP, 48. This massacre likely occurred before 1830.

¹⁹⁸ Robinson, 16 June 1830 journal entry, in Friendly Mission, 175. Later that month, Robinson reported what was probably the same massacre. Aborigines told him that “at the Doughboys” Van Diemen's Land Company employees had “massacred thirty of them and threw them off a cliff” (21 June 1830 journal entry, in Friendly Mission, 181).

¹⁹⁹ Colonial Times, 2 July 1830, 2.

²⁰⁰ Robinson, 12 August 1830 and 23 October 1830 journal entries, in Friendly Mission, 197–98, 256.

²⁰¹ Robinson, 25 September 1830 journal entry, in Friendly Mission, 219.

²⁰² Independent, 24 September 1831, quoted in Reynolds, “Genocide in Tasmania?” 142.

²⁰³ Backhouse, 9 February 1832 letter, in Extracts, 1:16.

²⁰⁴ Connor, Australian Frontier Wars, 89; Robinson, Friendly Mission, 579–80.

²⁰⁵ Melville, History, 33.

²⁰⁶ The Colonial Times reported, “several parties … in pursuit of the natives, to endeavour to capture them” on 28 August 1829, 3.

²⁰⁷ Government order, 25 February 1830, HCPP, 35.

²⁰⁸ Launceston Advertiser, 29 May 1834, 3.

²⁰⁹ Arthur to Murray, 20 November 1830, HCPP, 74.

²¹⁰ Connor, Australian Frontier Wars, 99.

²¹¹ Arthur to Murray, 20 November 1830, HCPP, 74.

²¹² Ibid., 60.

²¹³ Murray to Arthur, 5 November 1830, HCPP, 56.

²¹⁴ Plomley, Aboriginal/Settler Clash, 29.

²¹⁵ Quoted in Aborigines Committee, 4 February 1831, HCPP, 76; Henderson, Observations, 149.

²¹⁶ G. A. Robinson, 14 April 1838 journal annotation in Plomley, Weep in Silence, 733.

²¹⁷ Secretary of the Aborigines Committee, quoted in Reynolds, Fate of a Free People, 130.

²¹⁸ Quoted in Ryan, Aboriginal Tasmanians, 170.

²¹⁹ Launceston Advertiser, 29 May 1834, 3, and 23 October 1834, 3.

²²⁰ By 1835, “about three hundred and ten” were captured (Melville, History, 106). In 1842 seven more were captured and incarcerated at Wybalenna (West, History of Tasmania, 2:65).

²²¹ Reynolds, Fate of a Free People, 176.

²²² Ryan, Aboriginal Tasmanians, 183.

²²³ Turnbull, Clive, “Tasmania: The Ultimate Solution,” in Racism, The Australian Experience, ed. Stephens, F. S., 3 vols. Sydney, 2:230Google Scholar; Hughes, Fatal Shore, 423; Raymond Gill “A Closer Look at Our Singing Ambassador,” Age, 14 April 1994; quoted in Andrew Darby, “Bacon's Final Act Hopes to End Fight for Cape Barren,” Age, 28 February 2004.

²²⁴ “About 200” were sent to Flinders Island (Turnbull, “Tasmania,” 231).

²²⁵ Bonwick, Last of the Tasmanians, 247. The author visited Wybalenna in winter.

²²⁶ Windschuttle, Fabrication, 230.

²²⁷ Quoted in Peter Chapman, “Introduction” in Historical Records of Australia, ser. 3, 11 vols., ed. Peter Chapman Melbourne, 9:liv.

²²⁸ West, History of Tasmania, 2:67.

²²⁹ Quoted in Reynolds, Fate of a Free People, 154.

²³⁰ Quoted in Plomley, Weep in Silence, 314–15.

²³¹ Walker, James, Early Tasmania: Papers Read before the Royal Society of Tasmania during the Years 1888 to 1899 1902; Tasmania, 242Google Scholar.

²³² Quoted in Turnbull, Black War, 176, 177.

²³³ Report of Major Thomas Ryan upon the Aboriginal Establishment, quoted in Ryan, Aboriginal Tasmanians, 186.

²³⁴ Ryan, Aboriginal Tasmanians, 186, 196.

²³⁵ Bonwick, Last of the Tasmanians, 256.

²³⁶ Melville, History, 106.

²³⁷ Report of the Aboriginal Establishment, 7, quoted in Ryan, Aboriginal Tasmanians, 190.

²³⁸ Ryan,Aboriginal Tasmanians, app. 3.

²³⁹ Plomley, Weep in Silence, 934.

²⁴⁰ Ryan,Aboriginal Tasmanians, 191.

²⁴¹ Flinders Island Weekly Chronicle, 17 November 1837, 1.

²⁴² Ryan, Aboriginal Tasmanians, 192.

²⁴³ Ibid., 186; quoted in Reynolds, Fate of a Free People, 184.

²⁴⁴ “About 200” were brought to Flinders Island (Turnbull, “Tasmania,” 231). Two were executed on mainland Australia. Forty-seven returned to mainland Tasmania (Ryan, Aboriginal Tasmanians, app. 3).

²⁴⁵ Ryan, Aboriginal Tasmanians, 196, 200.

²⁴⁶ West, History of Tasmania, 2:75.

²⁴⁷ Reynolds, Fate of a Free People, 7–8.

²⁴⁸ Ibid., 15.

²⁴⁹ West, History of Tasmania, 2:75.

²⁵⁰ Plomley, Weep in Silence, 172.

²⁵¹ Melville, History, 75–76, editor's footnote. This conversation probably took place in 1829.

²⁵² Michael Roe, “Tasmania,” in The Oxford Companion to Australian History (New York, 2001), 635.

²⁵³ Australian Bureau of Statistics, http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/featurearticlesbytitle/06E6409495FF5247CA256DEA00053A04?OpenDocument.

²⁵⁴ Windschuttle, Fabrication, 386.

²⁵⁵ Anthropologist Josephine Flood has recently argued that “a strong oral tradition indicates that a catastrophic epidemic occurred even before British settlement.” Her evidence for this is post-1829 only. Paraphrasing a passage from James Bonwick's 1870 book Daily Life and Origin of the Tasmanians (87), Flood has written that “Robert Clark, a teacher at Wybalenna … reported that Aborigines told him [that] 'their numbers were very much thinned by a sudden attack of disease which was general among the entire population previous to the arrival of the English.'” Flood has also argued that “corroboration of depopulation through disease in the northeast comes from” Robinson's writings (Josephine Flood, The Original Australians: Story of the Aboriginal People [Crows Nest, 2007], 66, 67). However, the sources she cites date from 1830 and 1831—during the final phase when few Aborigines remained on mainland Tasmania—and they provide unclear evidence of any epidemic prior to 1829. No extant primary source that this author is aware of ever mentions any epidemic, apart from venereal disease, among the Aborigines of Tasmania prior to 1829. Lyndall Ryan has concluded that “recent archaeological research indicates that” Aboriginal Tasmanians were actually “increasing in population at the moment of British colonization in 1803” (“Abduction and Multiple Killings of Aborigines in Tasmania, 1804–1835,” http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial, 1). Boyce has observed, “Only from 1832 is the leading role of disease in the Aboriginal death rate conclusive” (“Fantasy Island,” 44).

²⁵⁶ Reynolds, Fate of a Free People, 81–82; Ryan, Aboriginal Tasmanians, 313, 174.

²⁵⁷ In 1998, for example, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ruled that Jean-Paul Akayesu was “culpable because he knew or should have known that the act committed would destroy, in whole or in part, a group” (quoted in William A. Schabas, Genocide in International Law: The Crimes of Crimes [New York, 2000], 212).

²⁵⁸ West, History of Tasmania, 2:94.

²⁵⁹ Atkins, Reminiscences, 14.

²⁶⁰ Colonial Times, 31 May 1836, 5.

²⁶¹ Barta, “Relations of Genocide,” 238.