Bats as prey of diurnal birds: a global perspective
Peter Mikula
Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Viničná 7, 128 43 Praha 2, Czech Republic
Search for more papers by this authorFederico Morelli
Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Hydrobiology, Na Sádkách 7, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
INRA, AgroParisTech, UMR 1048 SADAPT, 16 rue Claude Bernard, F- 75005 Paris, France
Search for more papers by this authorRadek K. Lučan
Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Viničná 7, 128 43 Praha 2, Czech Republic
Search for more papers by this authorDarryl N. Jones
Environmental Futures Research Institute, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, 4111 Australia
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Piotr Tryjanowski
Institute of Zoology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 71 C, 60-625 Poznań, Poland
Correspondence author.Search for more papers by this authorPeter Mikula
Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Viničná 7, 128 43 Praha 2, Czech Republic
Search for more papers by this authorFederico Morelli
Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Hydrobiology, Na Sádkách 7, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
INRA, AgroParisTech, UMR 1048 SADAPT, 16 rue Claude Bernard, F- 75005 Paris, France
Search for more papers by this authorRadek K. Lučan
Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Viničná 7, 128 43 Praha 2, Czech Republic
Search for more papers by this authorDarryl N. Jones
Environmental Futures Research Institute, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, 4111 Australia
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Piotr Tryjanowski
Institute of Zoology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 71 C, 60-625 Poznań, Poland
Correspondence author.Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
- Predation is an important selective pressure that can influence prey species in numerous ways. Predator–prey relationships are, however, poorly understood in taxa not typically associated with these interactions; this is especially the case when bats (Chiroptera) are the prey.
- The main aim here is to review and synthesise global information on the predation of bats by birds of prey (Accipitriformes and Falconiformes) and other diurnal bird groups.
- We compiled data on incidences of predation of bats by diurnal birds, through an extensive multilingual study of bibliographic and Internet-based sources. Scientific papers were found mainly via the Thomson Reuters (Web of Science and Zoological Record) and Scopus databases, Google Scholar, and Google Books. Additional data were found through Internet searches of trip reports, images and videos carried by Google, Google Images, Flickr, and YouTube.
- In total, more than 1500 cases of bats being attacked by diurnal predatory birds were obtained. Reports were documented from every continent (except Antarctica) and from 109 countries, and were thus distributed globally between 70°N and 43°S. Overall, we found evidence for predation of bats by 143 species of diurnal raptors (Accipitriformes 107 spp. and Falconiformes 36 spp.) and by 94 non-raptor bird species from 28 families. At least 124 and 50 bat species were taken as prey by raptors and by other diurnal bird species, respectively.
- Attacks on bats by diurnal raptors were found to be distributed globally and were present in the majority of extant raptor lineages. Attacks on bats by other diurnal birds were also occasionally recorded. Furthermore, the majority of extant bat families featured as prey. These results strongly suggest that predation by birds may act as a major factor affecting the scarcity of daytime activity in bats and as a driver in the evolution of bat nocturnality.
Supporting Information
Filename | Description |
---|---|
mam12060-sup-0001-si.xlsMS Excel, 451 KB | Appendix S1. Index of all languages used in literature searching. Appendix S2. Summary table of diurnal raptors (Accipitriformes and Falconiformes) reported to capture bats with list of localities at country level and bat taxa (arranged in alphabetical order). Appendix S3. Summary table of non-raptorial diurnal birds reported as bat hunters with list of localities at country level and bat taxa (arranged in alphabetical order). Appendix S4. References used in the Appendices. |
Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.
References
- Anonymous (2010) Kasanka Trust Ltd. Kasanka Trust Newsletter 2: 1–5.
- Anonymous (2012) ArcGIS Desktop: release 10.1. Environmental Systems Research Institute, Redlands, California, USA.
- Anonymous (2014a) 6th–11th March 2014 The Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico part 2. Chichen Itza, Felipe Carillo Puerto and Calakmul. https://gryllosblog.wordpress.com/2014/05/10/6th-11th-march-2014-the-yucatan-peninsula-mexico-part-2-chichen-itza-felipe-carillo-puerto-and-calakmul/ (accessed 9 July 2015).
- Anonymous (2014b) Back in cyber-space again!!! Report from Khao Yai! http://orientbirding.com/blog/back-in-cyber-space-again-report-from-khao-yai/ (accessed 9 July 2015).
- Anonymous (2014c) The Yucatan, Mexico. http://www.birdholidays.co.uk/Yucatan.birdwatching.holiday.htm (accessed 9 July 2015).
- Baker JK (1962) The manner and efficiency of raptor depredations on bats. The Condor 64: 500–504.
10.2307/1365473 Google Scholar
- Ballance TC (1981) Observations on bat hawk hunting. Honeyguide 106: 29–30.
- Beckemeyer R (2000) Phop gan mai iik khrap, Thailand! Argia 13: 9–12.
- Beebe W (1950) Home life of the bat falcon, Falco albigularis albigularis Daudin. Zoologica 35: 69–86.
- Begon M, Townsend CR, Harper JL (2005) Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems, 4th ed. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK.
- Bekker JP, Mostert K (1991) Predation on bats in the Netherlands. Lutra 34: 1–26.
- Bent AC (1950) Life Histories of North American Wagtails, Shrikes, Vireos, and Their Allies. Dover Publications, New York, USA.
- Binns A, Beer D (2011) Yucatan: Balamku raptors and bat spectacle. http://notesfromthewildside.com/2011/03/yucatan-balamku-raptors-and-bat-spectacle/ (accessed 9 July 2015).
- Black HL, Howard G, Stjernstedt R (1979) Observations on the feeding behavior of the bat kite (Macheiramphus alcinus). Biotropica 11: 18–21.
- Black HL, Thurow TL, White JD (1987) (Abstract) Bats: an ecological opportunity and a force in the evolution of the bat kite. In: Annual Meeting of the Raptor Research Foundation, Inc., Boise, Idaho, 41. Raptor Research Foundation, Boise, USA.
- Black TH (1956) Bat predators at Carlsbad Caverns. Carlsbad Caverns Natural History Files, No. N1427.
- Boland M (2009) Barred forest falcon at bat cave – collared? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wsBHyc-0oVM (accessed 9 July 2015).
- Borowski S (1968) Sparrow hawk hunting on the bats. Notatki Ornitologiczne 9: 40–41.
- Boxall PC (1982) Further observations of predation by black-billed magpies on small mammals. Journal of Field Ornithology 53: 172–173.
- Brown R (2004) Uganda, 13th–26th January 2004. http://www.surfbirds.com/trip_report.php?id=93 (accessed 10 July 2015).
- Byre VJ (1990) A group of young peregrine falcons prey on migrating bats. The Wilson Bulletin 102: 728–730.
- Caro T (2005) Antipredator Defenses in Birds and Mammals. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA.
- Chapin JP (1932) The birds of the Belgian Congo, Vol. 1. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 65: 17–56.
- Clay WM (1959) Blue jays attack a red bat. The Auk 76: 532.
10.2307/4082327 Google Scholar
- Cleeves TR (1969) Herring gull catching and eating bat. British Birds 62: 333.
- Clunie F (1972) A contribution to the natural history of the Fiji peregrine. Notornis 19: 302–321.
- Collin PN (2011) Herring gull catching and eating live bats. Scottish birds 31: 318–319.
- Constantine DG (1948) Great bat colonies attract predators. Bulletin of the National Speleological Society 10: 100.
- Craves JA (1994) American kestrel feeds on red bat. Michigan Birds and Natural History 1: 14–15.
- de Noronha JD, Battirola LD, Chagas A, de Miranda RM, Carpanedo RD, Rodrigues DD (2015) Predation of bat (Molossus molossus: Molossidae) by the centipede Scolopendra viridicornis (Scolopendridae) in Southern Amazonia. Acta Amazonica 45: 333–336.
- del Hoyo J, Elliot A, Sargatal J (1994) Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 2, New World Vultures to Guineafowl. Lynx Editions, Barcelona, Spain.
- del Hoyo J, Elliot A, Sargatal J (1999) Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 5, Barn-owls to Hummingbirds. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.
- del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J, Christie DA, de Juana E (2015) Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Editions, Barcelona, Spain. (accessed 19 July 2015; http://www.hbw.com/).
- DeCandido R, Allen D (2006) Nocturnal hunting by peregrine falcons at the Empire State Building, New York City. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology 118: 53–58.
- Dobbs G, Twino-beku A (2004) Uganda, July 28th to August 17th 2004. http://www.birdtours.co.uk/tripreports/uganda/uganda7/ugan-04.htm (accessed 10 July 2015).
- Dreyer NP (2010) Thailand, January 2010. http://dreyerfoto.dk/index/travel (accessed 19 June 2014).
- Drummond AJ, Rambaut A (2007) BEAST: Bayesian evolutionary analysis by sampling trees. BMC Evolutionary Biology 7: 214.
- Duquet M, Nadal R (2012) La capture de chauves-souris par des rapaces diurnes en France: essai de synthèse. Ornithos 19: 184–195.
- Eccles DH, Jensen RAC, Jensen MK (1969) Feeding behaviour of the bat hawk. Ostrich 40: 26–27.
- Esbérard CE, Vrcibradic D (2007) Snakes preying on bats: new records from Brazil and a review of recorded cases in the Neotropical Region. Revista Brasileira de Zoologia 24: 848–853.
- Estók P, Zsebők S, Siemers BM (2010) Great tits search for, capture, kill and eat hibernating bats. Biology Letters 6: 59–62.
- Fam SD, Nijman V (2011) Spizaetus hawk-eagles as predators of arboreal colobines. Primates 52: 105–110.
- Farina O, de Carvalho C, Pedro WA (2011) Predation of Platyrrhinus lineatus (E. Geoffroy, 1810) (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae) by Cyanocorax chrysops (Vieillot, 1818) (Passeriformes: Corvidae). Chiroptera Neotropical 17: 993–996.
- Fenton MB, Cumming DHM, Oxley DJ (1977) Prey of bat hawks and availability of bats. The Condor 79: 495–497.
- Fenton MB, Rautenbach IL, Smith SE, Swanepoel CM, Grosell J, Van Jaarsveld J (1994) Raptors and bats: threats and opportunities. Animal Behaviour 48: 9–18.
- Ferguson-Lees J, Christie DA (2001) Raptors of the World. Helm Identification Guides, London, UK.
- Finch BW (1978) Observations and notes on the bat hawk Machaeramphus alcinus in Papua. Papua New Guinea Bird Society Newsletter 146: 8–12.
- Forestman (2006) Urraca cazando murciélagos. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E881fLF-EJ0 (accessed 18 August 2015).
- Foysal M (2015) Observations of red-headed falcon Falco chicquera (Aves: Falconiformes: Falconidae) nest at Keraniganj, Dhaka, Bangladesh, with a focus on post-fledging behavior. Journal of Threatened Taxa 7: 7138–7145.
10.11609/JoTT.o3895.7138-45 Google Scholar
- Frafjord K (2012) Observations of a merlin (Falco columbarius) hunting northern bats (Eptesicus nilssonii) in midnight sun (Northern Norway). Nyctalus 17: 107–111.
- Fry CH (1964) Red-necked falcon Falco chicquera hunting bats. Bulletin of the Nigerian Ornithologists' Society 1: 19.
- Garber SD (1977) Bat predation by the American kestrel, Falco sparverius (Aves: Falconiformes). Bat Research News 18: 37–38.
- Gorman G (1998) Great grey shrike Lanius excubitor hunting noctule bats. Aquila 103–104: 153.
- Gunnell GF, Simmons NB (2012) Evolutionary History of Bats – Fossils, Molecules and Morphology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
10.1017/CBO9781139045599 Google Scholar
- Haensel J, Sömmer P (2002) Birds of prey catch bats and flying foxes – an attempt of a general survey – most recent knowledge about bat hunting of the fastest falcons in Germany. Ornithologische Jahresberichte des Museums Heineanum 20: 99–141.
- Hall J, Rose K, Smith C, De Jong C, Phalen D, Austen J, Field H (2014) Health assessment of the Christmas Island flying fox (Pteropus melanotus natalis). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 50: 447–458.
- Hall MI, Iwaniuk AN, Gutiérrez-Ibáñez C (2009) Optic foramen morphology and activity pattern in birds. The Anatomical Record 292: 1827–1845.
- Hanmer DB, Blackwood JGV (1982) A bat-eating kestrel, Falco dickinsoni. Ostrich 53: 188–189.
- Harden WD (1972) Predation by hawks on bats at Vickery Bat Cave. Bulletin of the Oklahoma Ornithological Society 5: 4–5.
- Hernández DL, Mell JJ, Eaton MD (2007) Aerial predation of a bat by an American crow. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology 119: 763–764.
- Herreid CF (1960) Roadrunner a predator of bats. The Condor 62: 67.
- Herrmann E (2004) Common fiscal Lanius collaris preying on a cape serotine bat Eptesicus capensis. Ostrich 75: 333.
- Hochachka WM, Scharf CS (1986) Black-billed magpie, Pica pica, predation on bats. The Canadian Field-naturalist 100: 121–122.
- Holroyd GL, Beaubien EG (1983) Ring-billed gull, Larus delawarensis, predation on bat, Myotis, injured by an American kestrel, Falco sparverius. The Canadian Field-naturalist 97: 452.
- Hunter S (2009) Rock kestrel hunting bats at roost. Gabar 20: 40.
- Jacobs IF, Osvath M, Osvath H, Mioduszewska B, von Bayern AM, Kacelnik A (2014) Object caching in corvids: incidence and significance. Behavioural Processes 102: 25–32.
- Jetz W, Thomas GH, Joy JB, Hartmann K, Mooers AO (2012) The global diversity of birds in space and time. Nature 491: 444–448.
- Jędrzejewska B, Jędrzejewski W (1998) Predation in Vertebrate Communities: the Białowieża Primeval Forest as a Case Study. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
- Jones LR, Black HL, White CM (2012) Evidence for convergent evolution in gape morphology of the bat hawk (Macheiramphus alcinus) with swifts, swallows, and goatsuckers. Biotropica 44: 386–393.
- Kemp AC (2001) Family Bucerotidae (hornbills). In: J Hoyo, A Elliott, J Sargatal (eds) Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 6, Mousebirds to Hornbills, 436–523. Lynx Editions, Barcelona, Spain.
- Kemp AC, Rautenbach IL (1987) Bat hawks or bat-eating hawks? Gabar 2: 4–6.
- Kennedy RS (1985) Conservation research of the Philippine Eagle. National Geographic Society Research Report 18: 401–414.
- Kervyn T (1998) Attacks of serotine bats (Eptesicus serotinus) by breeding starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) and common swifts (Apus apus). Aves 35: 225–229.
- Kirven MN (1976) The Ecology and Behavior of the Bat Falcon, Falco rufigularis. PhD thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA.
- Kissling WD, Sekercioglu CH, Jetz W (2011) Bird dietary guild richness across latitudes, environments and biogeographic regions. Global Ecology and Biogeography 21: 328–340.
- Kunz TH, Fenton MB (2003) Bat Ecology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA.
- Lausen CL, Barclay RMR (2006) Benefits of living in a building: big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) in rocks versus buildings. Journal of Mammalogy 87: 362–370.
- Laycock P (1982) Avian predation on cave dwelling insectivorous bats. Bokmakierie 34: 17–18.
- Lee YF, Kuo YM (2001) Predation on Mexican free-tailed bats by peregrine falcons and red-tailed hawks. Journal of Raptor Research 35: 115–123.
- Lefevre KL (2005) Predation of a bat by American crows, Corvus brachyrhynchos. The Canadian Field-naturalist 119: 443–444.
- Lendrum AL (1977) Observations on a bat hawk. Honeyguide 90: 45.
- Lesiński G, Gryz J, Kowalski M (2009a) Bat predation by tawny owls Strix aluco in differently human-transformed habitats. Italian Journal of Zoology 76: 415–421.
- Lesiński G, Ignaczak M, Manias J (2009b) Opportunistic predation on bats by the tawny owl Strix aluco. Animal Biology 59: 283–288.
- Lewanzik D, Voigt CC (2014) Artificial light puts ecosystem services of frugivorous bats at risk. Journal of Applied Ecology 51: 388–394.
- Lewis MJ (1987) Australian kestrels Falco cenchroides feeding on bats. Australian Bird Watcher 12: 126–127.
- Lim CK, Cranbrook E (2002) Swiftlets of Borneo: Builders of Edible Nests. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia.
- Lima SL, Dill LM (1990) Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: a review and prospectus. Canadian Journal of Zoology 68: 619–640.
- Lima SL, O'Keefe JM (2013) Do predators influence the behaviour of bats? Biological Reviews 88: 626–644.
- Lindskog SR (1976) Sparrow hawk Accipiter nisus catching a bat. Anser 14: 281.
- Looney MW (1972) Predation of bats by hawks and owls. Bulletin of the Oklahoma Ornithological Society 5: 1–4.
- Manakadan R, Natarajan V (1992) Brahminy kite Haliastur indus (Boddaert) preying on bats. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 89: 367.
- Martínez-Coronel M, Morales-Medina X, Müdespacher-Ziehl C (2009) Depredadores de murciélagos en la cueva de Los Laguitos, Chiapas, México. Revista Mexicana De Mastozoología (Nueva Época) 13: 82–91.
- Martinez SG, Lee TE (2013) Predation on Mexican free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) by merlin (Falco columbarius). The Southwestern Naturalist 58: 508–512.
- Mason CF, Stebbings RE, Winn GP (1972) Noctules (Nyctalus noctula) and starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) competing for roosting holes. Journal of Zoology 166: 467.
- Meinesz A, Meinesz S, Bennett G (1982) Rock kestrel takes a bat. Bokmakierie 34: 40–41.
- Menchetti M, Scalera R, Mori E (2014) First record of a possibly overlooked impact by alien parrots on a bat (Nyctalus leisleri). Hystrix, the Italian Journal of Mammalogy 25: 61–62.
- Metcalf EC (1983) Australian hobbies hunting bats. Australian Raptors Association News 4: 7–8.
- Michaelsen TC, Jensen KH, Högstedt G (2014) Roost site selection in pregnant and lactating soprano pipistrelles (Pipistrellus pygmaeus Leach, 1825) at the species northern extreme: the importance of warm and safe roosts. Acta Chiropterologica 16: 349–357.
- Michalak L (1997) Sharp-shinned hawk preys on bat. Ontario Birds 15: 27–28.
- Mikula P (2013) Western jackdaw (Corvus monedula) attacking bats (Chiroptera): observations from Bardejov, northeastern Slovakia. Sylvia 49: 157–159.
- Mikula P, Hromada M, Tryjanowski P (2013) Bats and swifts as food of the European kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) in a small town in Slovakia. Ornis Fennica 90: 178–185.
- Molinari J, Gutiérrez EE, Ascenção AA, Nassar JM, Arends A, Márquez RJ (2005) Predation by giant centipedes, Scolopendra gigantea, on three species of bats in a Venezuelan cave. Caribbean Journal of Science 41: 340–346.
- Moore NW (1975) The diurnal flight of the Azorean bat and the avifauna of the Azores. Journal of Zoology 117: 583–586.
- Mumford RE (1980) Two cases of hawk predation on bats. Bat Research News 21: 11.
- Negro JJ, Ibáñez C, Pérezjordá JL, Delariva MJ (1992) Winter predation by common kestrel Falco tinnunculus on pipistrelle bats Pipistrellus pipistrellus in southern Spain. Bird Study 39: 195–199.
- Negro JJ, Bustamante J, Melguizo C, Ruiz JL, Grande JM (2000) Nocturnal activity of lesser kestrels under artificial lighting conditions in Seville, Spain. Journal of Raptor Research 34: 327–329.
- Nyffeler M, Knörnschild M (2013) Bat predation by spiders. PLoS ONE 8: e58120.
- Obuch J (1998) The representation of bats (Chiroptera) in the diet of owls (Strigiformes) in Slovakia. Vespertilio 3: 65–74.
- Obuch J (2007) Food of the raven (Corvus corax) in Slovakia. Tichodroma 19: 1–10.
- Ojeda VS, Chazarreta ML (2006) Provisioning of Magellanic woodpecker (Campephilus magellanicus) nestlings with vertebrate prey. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology 118: 251–254.
- Olsen PD, Debus SJS, Czechura GV, Mooney NJ (1990) Comparative feeding ecology of the grey goshawk Accipiter novaehollandiae and brown goshawk Accipiter fasciatus. Australian Bird Watcher 13: 178–192.
- Pačenovský S (2006) Attack of the black-billed magpie (Pica pica) on the noctule bat (Nyctalus noctula). Vespertilio 9–10: 231–232.
- Pagnoni G (2013) Halconcito colorado (Falco sparverius) cazando murciélagos. Nuestras Aves 58: 59–60.
- Parker M (1997) Ecology of Nesting Laughing Falcons and Bat Falcons in Tikal National Park, Guatemala: Foraging and Niche Breadth. MSc thesis, Boise State University, Boise, USA.
- Pierson JE, Donahue P (1983) Peregrine falcon feeding on bats in Suriname, South America. American Birds 37: 257–259.
- Pikacha P, Sirikolo M, Boseto D, Filardi C (2012) Ecological observations on Sanford's sea-eagle Haliaeetus (leucogaster) sanfordi. Australian Field Ornithology 29: 143–148.
- Rautenbach IL, Fenton MB, Kemp AC, Van Jaarsveld SJ (1990) Home range and activity of African goshawks Accipiter tachiro in relation to their predation on bats. Koedoe 33: 17–21.
10.4102/koedoe.v33i2.437 Google Scholar
- Rejt L (2004) Nocturnal feeding of young by urban peregrine falcons Falco peregrinus in Warsaw (Poland). Polish Journal of Ecology 52: 63–68.
- Robinson SK (1994) Habitat selection and foraging ecology of raptors in Amazonian Peru. Biotropica 26: 443–458.
- Rodríguez-Durán A, Lewis AR (1985) Seasonal predation by merlins on sooty mustached bats in western Puerto Rico. Biotropica 17: 71–74.
- Rollie C, Christie G (2006) Peregrine falcon catching and killing a bat in daylight. Scottish Birds 26: 45–46.
- Round PD, Jukmongkol R, Kasorndorkbua C (2006) Recent reports March–June 2006. http://www.worldtwitch.com/2006_thailand_bird_reports.htm (accessed 9 July 2015).
- Roworth P, Wright E (1989) Sparrowhawk attacking noctule bats. British Birds 82: 564–565.
- Russo D, Ancillotto L (2015) Sensitivity of bats to urbanization: a review. Mammalian Biology 80: 205–212.
- Russo D, Maglio G, Rainho A, Meyer CF, Palmeirim JM (2011) Out of the dark: diurnal activity in the bat Hipposideros ruber on São Tomé Island (West Africa). Mammalian Biology 76: 701–708.
- Rydell J (1992) Occurrence of bats in northernmost Sweden (65°N) and their feeding ecology in summer. Journal of Zoology 227: 517–529.
- Rydell J, Speakman JR (1995) Evolution of nocturnality in bats: potential competitors and predators during their early history. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 54: 183–191.
- Rydell J, Entwistle A, Racey PA (1996) Timing of foraging flights of three species of bats in relation to insect activity and predation risk. Oikos 76: 243–252.
- Sarkozi DL, Brooks DM (2003) Eastern red bat (Lasiurus borealis) impaled by a loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus). Southwestern Naturalist 48: 301–303.
- Schwan TG, Hikes N (1979) Fiscal shrike predation on the bat Pipistrellus kuhli in Kenya. Biotropica 11: 21.
- Seijas AE (1996) Feeding of the bat falcon (Falco rufigularis) in an urban environment. Journal of Raptor Research 30: 33–35.
- Sheldon FH, Moyle RG, Kennard J (2001) Ornithology of Sabah: history, gazetteer, annotated checklist, and bibliography. Ornithological Monographs 52: 1–285.
- Smythies BE (1953) The Birds of Burma. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, UK.
- Smythies BE (1968) The Birds of Borneo. 2nd ed. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, UK.
- Sparks DW, Roberts KJ, Jones C (2000) Vertebrate predators on bats in North America North of Mexico. Reflections of a Naturalist. In: JR Choate (ed) Papers Honoring Professor Eugene D. Fleharty, 229–241. Fort Hays Studies, Hays, Kansas, USA.
- Speakman JR (1990) The function of daylight flying in British bats. Journal of Zoology London 220: 101–113.
- Speakman JR (1991a) The impact of predation by birds on bat populations in the British Isles. Mammal Review 21: 123–142.
- Speakman JR (1991b) Why do insectivorous bats in Britain not fly in daylight more frequently? Functional Ecology 5: 518–524.
- Speakman JR (1995) Chiropteran nocturnality. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London 67: 187–201.
- Speakman JR, Webb PI (1993) Taxonomy, status and distribution of the Azorean bat (Nyctalus azoreum). Journal of Zoology 231: 27–38.
- Speakman JR, Lumsden LF, Hays GC (1994) Predation rates on bats released to fly during daylight in south-eastern Australia. Journal of Zoology 233: 318–321.
- Sprunt A (1950) Hawk predation at the bat caves of Texas. Texas Journal of Science 2: 463–470.
- Sprunt A (1951) Aerial feeding of duck hawk, Falco p. anatum. The Auk 68: 372–373.
10.2307/4080990 Google Scholar
- Stager KE (1941) A group of bat-eating duck hawks. The Condor 43: 137–139.
10.2307/1364367 Google Scholar
- Stimpson CM (2009) Raptor and owl bone from Niah Caves, Sarawak: identifications and morphological variation in the humerus and tarsometatarsus of selected raptors. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 19: 476–490.
- Stone EL, Jones G, Harris S (2009) Street lighting disturbs commuting bats. Current Biology 19: 1123–1127.
- Stuart C, Stuart T (2004) African white-backed vultures Gyps africanus feeding on straw-coloured fruit bats Eidolon helvum. Vulture News 50: 34–35.
- Suzuki TN (2012) Mobbing to death of a Japanese long-eared bat Plecotus sacrimontis by two species of tit. Forktail 28: 171–172.
- Thiollay JM (1983) Evolution actuelle du peuplement de rapaces diurnes dans le nord de Bornéo. Alauda 51: 109–123.
- Thomsett S (1987) Bat hunting by lanner falcons in Kenya. Gabar 2: 7–8.
- Thomson SC, Brooke AP, Speakman JR (1998) Diurnal activity in the Samoan flying fox, Pteropus samoensis. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 353: 1595–1606.
- Tryjanowski P, Lorek G (1998) Kestrel and great grey shrike catch insects after sunset in the dark, lightened by an artificial light. British Birds 91: 327.
- Tugendhat M (1966) Swallows mobbing pipistrelle bat. British Birds 59: 435.
- Twente JW (1954) Predation on bats by hawks and owls. The Wilson Bulletin 66: 135–136.
- Twente JW (1956) Ecological observations on a colony of Tadarida mexicana. Journal of Mammalogy 37: 42–47.
10.2307/1375524 Google Scholar
- van Beirs M (2004) The best of Uganda, 28 November–13 December 2004. http://www.birdquest-tours.com/pdfs/report/UGANDA%20(BEST)%20REP%2004.pdf (accessed 10 July 2015).
- van Beirs M (2014) The Yucatan Peninsula, 28 February–11 March 2014. http://www.birdquest-tours.com/pdfs/report/MEXICO%20-YUCATAN-%20REP%2014-ebook.pdf (accessed 9 July 2015).
- Van Jaarsveld J (1988) African goshawks and European hobbies bat-hawking. Gabar 3: 29–31.
- Welbergen JA (2006) Timing of the evening emergence from day roosts of the grey-headed flying fox, Pteropus poliocephalus: the effects of predation risk, foraging needs, and social context. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 60: 311–322.
- Wilson DE, Engbring J (1992) The flying foxes Pteropus samoensis and Pteropus tonganus: status in Fiji and Samoa. In: DE Wilson, GL Graham (eds) Pacific Island Flying Foxes: Proceedings of an International Conference, 74–101. US Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report, Washington, USA.
- Woolley S, Casson J (2008) Murchison Falls. http://jjcskw.com/trip%20reports/uganda/murchison.htm (accessed at 10 July 2015).
- Worthy TH, Anderson A (2009) Results of palaeofaunal research. In: G Clark, A Anderson (eds) The Prehistory of Early Fiji, Terra Australis 31, 41–62. Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.
- Worthy TH, Holdaway RN (1995) Quaternary fossil faunas from caves on Mt Cookson, North Canterbury, South Island, New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 25: 333–370.
- Yancey FD, Roberts KJ, Jones C (1996) Prairie falcon predation on Brazilian free-tailed bats. Prairie Naturalist 28: 146.
- Yosef R (1991) Foraging habits, hunting and breeding success of lanner falcons in Israel. Journal of Raptor Research 25: 77–81.
- Young RA (1980) Observations on the vulnerability of two species of wattled bats Chalinolobus to diurnal avian predators. Victorian Naturalist 97: 258–263.