Advertisement

Abstract

We live amid a global wave of anthropogenically driven biodiversity loss: species and population extirpations and, critically, declines in local species abundance. Particularly, human impacts on animal biodiversity are an under-recognized form of global environmental change. Among terrestrial vertebrates, 322 species have become extinct since 1500, and populations of the remaining species show 25% average decline in abundance. Invertebrate patterns are equally dire: 67% of monitored populations show 45% mean abundance decline. Such animal declines will cascade onto ecosystem functioning and human well-being. Much remains unknown about this “Anthropocene defaunation”; these knowledge gaps hinder our capacity to predict and limit defaunation impacts. Clearly, however, defaunation is both a pervasive component of the planet’s sixth mass extinction and also a major driver of global ecological change.

Get full access to this article

View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.

Supplementary Material

Summary

Materials and Methods
Figs. S1 to S6
Tables S1 to S3
References (80167)

Resources

File (dirzo-sm.pdf)

References and Notes

1
Barnosky A. D., Matzke N., Tomiya S., Wogan G. O., Swartz B., Quental T. B., Marshall C., McGuire J. L., Lindsey E. L., Maguire K. C., Mersey B., Ferrer E. A., Has the Earth’s sixth mass extinction already arrived? Nature 471, 51–57 (2011). 10.1038/nature09678
2
Cardillo M., Mace G. M., Gittleman J. L., Jones K. E., Bielby J., Purvis A., The predictability of extinction: Biological and external correlates of decline in mammals. Philos. R. Soc. London B. Biol. 275, 1441–1448 (2008). 10.1098/rspb.2008.0179
3
Doughty C. E., Wolf A., Malhi Y., The legacy of the Pleistocene megafauna extinctions on nutrient availability in Amazonia. Nat. Geosci. 6, 761–764 (2013). 10.1038/ngeo1895
4
Gill J. L., Williams J. W., Jackson S. T., Lininger K. B., Robinson G. S., Pleistocene megafaunal collapse, novel plant communities, and enhanced fire regimes in North America. Science 326, 1100–1103 (2009). 10.1126/science.1179504
5
R. Dirzo, in Global Biodiversity in a Changing Environment: Scenarios for the 21st Century, F. S. Chapin, O. E. Sala, E. Huber-Sannwald, Ed. (Springer, New York, 2001), pp. 251–276.
6
Peres C. A., Palacios E., Basin-wide effects of game harvest on vertebrate population densities in Amazonian forests: Implications for animal-mediated seed dispersal. Biotropica 39, 304–315 (2007). 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2007.00272.x
7
Barnosky A. D., Hadly E. A., Bascompte J., Berlow E. L., Brown J. H., Fortelius M., Getz W. M., Harte J., Hastings A., Marquet P. A., Martinez N. D., Mooers A., Roopnarine P., Vermeij G., Williams J. W., Gillespie R., Kitzes J., Marshall C., Matzke N., Mindell D. P., Revilla E., Smith A. B., Approaching a state shift in Earth’s biosphere. Nature 486, 52–58 (2012). 10.1038/nature11018
8
Ceballos G., Ehrlich P. R., Mammal population losses and the extinction crisis. Science 296, 904–907 (2002). 10.1126/science.1069349
9
Hooper D. U., Adair E. C., Cardinale B. J., Byrnes J. E., Hungate B. A., Matulich K. L., Gonzalez A., Duffy J. E., Gamfeldt L., O’Connor M. I., A global synthesis reveals biodiversity loss as a major driver of ecosystem change. Nature 486, 105–108 (2012).22678289
10
Gaston K. J., Fuller R. A., Commonness, population depletion and conservation biology. Trends Ecol. Evol. 23, 14–19 (2008). 10.1016/j.tree.2007.11.001
11
Brook B. W., Sodhi N. S., Bradshaw C. J., Synergies among extinction drivers under global change. Trends Ecol. Evol. 23, 453–460 (2008). 10.1016/j.tree.2008.03.011
12
Säterberg T., Sellman S., Ebenman B., High frequency of functional extinctions in ecological networks. Nature 499, 468–470 (2013). 10.1038/nature12277
13
Mooers A. Ø., Faith D. P., Maddison W. P., Converting endangered species categories to probabilities of extinction for phylogenetic conservation prioritization. PLOS One 3, e3700 (2008). 10.1371/journal.pone.0003700
14
Butchart S. H. M., Walpole M., Collen B., van Strien A., Scharlemann J. P. W., Almond R. E. A., Baillie J. E. M., Bomhard B., Brown C., Bruno J., Carpenter K. E., Carr G. M., Chanson J., Chenery A. M., Csirke J., Davidson N. C., Dentener F., Foster M., Galli A., Galloway J. N., Genovesi P., Gregory R. D., Hockings M., Kapos V., Lamarque J.-F., Leverington F., Loh J., McGeoch M. A., McRae L., Minasyan A., Morcillo M. H., Oldfield T. E. E., Pauly D., Quader S., Revenga C., Sauer J. R., Skolnik B., Spear D., Stanwell-Smith D., Stuart S. N., Symes A., Tierney M., Tyrrell T. D., Vié J. C., Watson R., Global biodiversity: Indicators of recent declines. Science 328, 1164–1168 (2010). 10.1126/science.1187512
15
Mora C., Rollo A., Tittensor D. P., Science 443, 295 (2013).
16
Scheffers B. R., Joppa L. N., Pimm S. L., Laurance W. F., What we know and don’t know about Earth’s missing biodiversity. Trends Ecol. Evol. 27, 501–510 (2012). 10.1016/j.tree.2012.05.008
17
IUCN, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013); available at www.iucnredlist.org.
18
Hoffmann M., Hilton-Taylor C., Angulo A., Böhm M., Brooks T. M., Butchart S. H., Carpenter K. E., Chanson J., Collen B., Cox N. A., Darwall W. R., Dulvy N. K., Harrison L. R., Katariya V., Pollock C. M., Quader S., Richman N. I., Rodrigues A. S., Tognelli M. F., Vié J. C., Aguiar J. M., Allen D. J., Allen G. R., Amori G., Ananjeva N. B., Andreone F., Andrew P., Aquino Ortiz A. L., Baillie J. E., Baldi R., Bell B. D., Biju S. D., Bird J. P., Black-Decima P., Blanc J. J., Bolaños F., Bolivar-G W., Burfield I. J., Burton J. A., Capper D. R., Castro F., Catullo G., Cavanagh R. D., Channing A., Chao N. L., Chenery A. M., Chiozza F., Clausnitzer V., Collar N. J., Collett L. C., Collette B. B., Cortez Fernandez C. F., Craig M. T., Crosby M. J., Cumberlidge N., Cuttelod A., Derocher A. E., Diesmos A. C., Donaldson J. S., Duckworth J. W., Dutson G., Dutta S. K., Emslie R. H., Farjon A., Fowler S., Freyhof J., Garshelis D. L., Gerlach J., Gower D. J., Grant T. D., Hammerson G. A., Harris R. B., Heaney L. R., Hedges S. B., Hero J. M., Hughes B., Hussain S. A., Icochea M J., Inger R. F., Ishii N., Iskandar D. T., Jenkins R. K., Kaneko Y., Kottelat M., Kovacs K. M., Kuzmin S. L., La Marca E., Lamoreux J. F., Lau M. W., Lavilla E. O., Leus K., Lewison R. L., Lichtenstein G., Livingstone S. R., Lukoschek V., Mallon D. P., McGowan P. J., McIvor A., Moehlman P. D., Molur S., Muñoz Alonso A., Musick J. A., Nowell K., Nussbaum R. A., Olech W., Orlov N. L., Papenfuss T. J., Parra-Olea G., Perrin W. F., Polidoro B. A., Pourkazemi M., Racey P. A., Ragle J. S., Ram M., Rathbun G., Reynolds R. P., Rhodin A. G., Richards S. J., Rodríguez L. O., Ron S. R., Rondinini C., Rylands A. B., Sadovy de Mitcheson Y., Sanciangco J. C., Sanders K. L., Santos-Barrera G., Schipper J., Self-Sullivan C., Shi Y., Shoemaker A., Short F. T., Sillero-Zubiri C., Silvano D. L., Smith K. G., Smith A. T., Snoeks J., Stattersfield A. J., Symes A. J., Taber A. B., Talukdar B. K., Temple H. J., Timmins R., Tobias J. A., Tsytsulina K., Tweddle D., Ubeda C., Valenti S. V., van Dijk P. P., Veiga L. M., Veloso A., Wege D. C., Wilkinson M., Williamson E. A., Xie F., Young B. E., Akçakaya H. R., Bennun L., Blackburn T. M., Boitani L., Dublin H. T., da Fonseca G. A., Gascon C., Lacher T. E., Mace G. M., Mainka S. A., McNeely J. A., Mittermeier R. A., Reid G. M., Rodriguez J. P., Rosenberg A. A., Samways M. J., Smart J., Stein B. A., Stuart S. N., The impact of conservation on the status of the world’s vertebrates. Science 330, 1503–1509 (2010). 10.1126/science.1194442
19
Materials and methods are available as supplementary materials on Science Online.
20
Ceballos G., García A., Ehrlich P. R., J. Cosmol. 8, 1821 (2010).
21
Collen B., Loh J., Whitmee S., McRae L., Amin R., Baillie J. E., Monitoring change in vertebrate abundance: The living planet index. Conserv. Biol. 23, 317–327 (2009). 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01117.x
22
Living Planet Rport, “Living Planet Report 2012: Biodiversity, biocapacity and better choices” (WWF, Zoological Society of London, Global Footprint Network, European Space Agency, London, 2012).
23
B. Collen, M. Böhm, R. Kemp, J. Baillie, Spineless: Status and Trends of the World’s Invertebrates (Zoological Society of London, London, 2012).
24
Collen B., Baillie J. E. M., Barometer of life: Sampling. Science 329, 140 (2010). 10.1126/science.329.5988.140-a
25
Fox R., et al., J. Appl. Ecol. 10.1111/1365-2664.12256 (2014). 10.1111/1365-2664.12256
26
Cavender-Bares J., Kozak K. H., Fine P. V., Kembel S. W., The merging of community ecology and phylogenetic biology. Ecol. Lett. 12, 693–715 (2009). 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01314.x
27
Schipper J., Chanson J. S., Chiozza F., Cox N. A., Hoffmann M., Katariya V., Lamoreux J., Rodrigues A. S., Stuart S. N., Temple H. J., Baillie J., Boitani L., Lacher T. E., Mittermeier R. A., Smith A. T., Absolon D., Aguiar J. M., Amori G., Bakkour N., Baldi R., Berridge R. J., Bielby J., Black P. A., Blanc J. J., Brooks T. M., Burton J. A., Butynski T. M., Catullo G., Chapman R., Cokeliss Z., Collen B., Conroy J., Cooke J. G., da Fonseca G. A., Derocher A. E., Dublin H. T., Duckworth J. W., Emmons L., Emslie R. H., Festa-Bianchet M., Foster M., Foster S., Garshelis D. L., Gates C., Gimenez-Dixon M., Gonzalez S., Gonzalez-Maya J. F., Good T. C., Hammerson G., Hammond P. S., Happold D., Happold M., Hare J., Harris R. B., Hawkins C. E., Haywood M., Heaney L. R., Hedges S., Helgen K. M., Hilton-Taylor C., Hussain S. A., Ishii N., Jefferson T. A., Jenkins R. K., Johnston C. H., Keith M., Kingdon J., Knox D. H., Kovacs K. M., Langhammer P., Leus K., Lewison R., Lichtenstein G., Lowry L. F., Macavoy Z., Mace G. M., Mallon D. P., Masi M., McKnight M. W., Medellín R. A., Medici P., Mills G., Moehlman P. D., Molur S., Mora A., Nowell K., Oates J. F., Olech W., Oliver W. R., Oprea M., Patterson B. D., Perrin W. F., Polidoro B. A., Pollock C., Powel A., Protas Y., Racey P., Ragle J., Ramani P., Rathbun G., Reeves R. R., Reilly S. B., Reynolds J. E., Rondinini C., Rosell-Ambal R. G., Rulli M., Rylands A. B., Savini S., Schank C. J., Sechrest W., Self-Sullivan C., Shoemaker A., Sillero-Zubiri C., De Silva N., Smith D. E., Srinivasulu C., Stephenson P. J., van Strien N., Talukdar B. K., Taylor B. L., Timmins R., Tirira D. G., Tognelli M. F., Tsytsulina K., Veiga L. M., Vié J. C., Williamson E. A., Wyatt S. A., Xie Y., Young B. E., The status of the world’s land and marine mammals: Diversity, threat, and knowledge. Science 322, 225–230 (2008). 10.1126/science.1165115
28
Pimm S. L., Jenkins C. N., Abell R., Brooks T. M., Gittleman J. L., Joppa L. N., Raven P. H., Roberts C. M., Sexton J. O., The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection. Science 344, 1246752 (2014). 10.1126/science.1246752
29
Dirzo R., Raven P. H., Global state of biodiversity and loss. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 28, 137–167 (2003). 10.1146/annurev.energy.28.050302.105532
30
Jenkins C. N., Pimm S. L., Joppa L. N., Global patterns of terrestrial vertebrate diversity and conservation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110, E2602–E2610 (2013). 10.1073/pnas.1302251110
31
Cardillo M., Meijaard E., Are comparative studies of extinction risk useful for conservation? Trends Ecol. Evol. 27, 167–171 (2012). 10.1016/j.tree.2011.09.013
32
Davidson A. D., Hamilton M. J., Boyer A. G., Brown J. H., Ceballos G., Multiple ecological pathways to extinction in mammals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106, 10702–10705 (2009). 10.1073/pnas.0901956106
33
Öckinger E., Schweiger O., Crist T. O., Debinski D. M., Krauss J., Kuussaari M., Petersen J. D., Pöyry J., Settele J., Summerville K. S., Bommarco R., Life-history traits predict species responses to habitat area and isolation: A cross-continental synthesis. Ecol. Lett. 13, 969–979 (2010).20482577
34
Lee T. M., Jetz W., Unravelling the structure of species extinction risk for predictive conservation science. Philos. R. Soc. London B. Biol. 278, 1329–1338 (2011). 10.1098/rspb.2010.1877
35
Pocock M. J., Roy P., Can traits predict species’ vulnerability? A test with farmland passerines in two continents. Philos. R. Soc. London B. Biol. 278, 1532–1538 (2011). 10.1098/rspb.2010.1971
36
Fritz S. A., Bininda-Emonds O. R. P., Purvis A., Geographical variation in predictors of mammalian extinction risk: Big is bad, but only in the tropics. Ecol. Lett. 12, 538–549 (2009). 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01307.x
37
Cowlishaw G., Pettifor R. A., Isaac N. J., High variability in patterns of population decline: The importance of local processes in species extinctions. Philos. R. Soc. London B. Biol. 276, 63–69 (2009). 10.1098/rspb.2008.0767
38
Cardillo M., Mace G. M., Gittleman J. L., Purvis A., Latent extinction risk and the future battlegrounds of mammal conservation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 4157–4161 (2006). 10.1073/pnas.0510541103
39
Hillebrand H., Matthiessen B., Biodiversity in a complex world: Consolidation and progress in functional biodiversity research. Ecol. Lett. 12, 1405–1419 (2009). 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01388.x
40
McCauley D. J., Young H. S., Dunbar R. B., Estes J. A., Semmens B. X., Micheli F., Assessing the effects of large mobile predators on ecosystem connectivity. Ecol. Appl. 22, 1711–1717 (2012). 10.1890/11-1653.1
41
Keesing F., Belden L. K., Daszak P., Dobson A., Harvell C. D., Holt R. D., Hudson P., Jolles A., Jones K. E., Mitchell C. E., Myers S. S., Bogich T., Ostfeld R. S., Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases. Nature 468, 647–652 (2010). 10.1038/nature09575
42
Johnson P. T., Preston D. L., Hoverman J. T., Richgels K. L., Biodiversity decreases disease through predictable changes in host community competence. Nature 494, 230–233 (2013). 10.1038/nature11883
43
Di Marco M., et al., Conserv. Biol. 10.1111/cobi.12249 (2014). 10.1111/cobi.12249
44
Sala O. E., Chapin F. S., Armesto J. J., Berlow E., Bloomfield J., Dirzo R., Huber-Sanwald E., Huenneke L. F., Jackson R. B., Kinzig A., Leemans R., Lodge D. M., Mooney H. A., Oesterheld M., Poff N. L., Sykes M. T., Walker B. H., Walker M., Wall D. H., Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science 287, 1770–1774 (2000). 10.1126/science.287.5459.1770
45
Sekercioglu C. H., Schneider S. H., Fay J. P., Loarie S. R., Climate change, elevational range shifts, and bird extinctions. Conserv. Biol. 22, 140–150 (2008). 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00852.x
46
Smith K. F., Sax D. F., Lafferty K. D., Evidence for the role of infectious disease in species extinction and endangerment. Conserv. Biol. 20, 1349–1357 (2006). 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00524.x
47
Peres C. A., Effects of subsistence hunting on vertebrate community structure in Amazonian forests. Conserv. Biol. 14, 240–253 (2000). 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.98485.x
48
Jackson S. T., Sax D. F., Balancing biodiversity in a changing environment: Extinction debt, immigration credit and species turnover. Trends Ecol. Evol. 25, 153–160 (2010). 10.1016/j.tree.2009.10.001
49
Reiss J., Bridle J. R., Montoya J. M., Woodward G., Emerging horizons in biodiversity and ecosystem functioning research. Trends Ecol. Evol. 24, 505–514 (2009). 10.1016/j.tree.2009.03.018
50
Cardinale B. J., Duffy J. E., Gonzalez A., Hooper D. U., Perrings C., Venail P., Narwani A., Mace G. M., Tilman D., Wardle D. A., Kinzig A. P., Daily G. C., Loreau M., Grace J. B., Larigauderie A., Srivastava D. S., Naeem S., Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature 486, 59–67 (2012). 10.1038/nature11148
51
Cardinale B. J., Srivastava D. S., Duffy J. E., Wright J. P., Downing A. L., Sankaran M., Jouseau C., Effects of biodiversity on the functioning of trophic groups and ecosystems. Nature 443, 989–992 (2006). 10.1038/nature05202
52
Gallai N., Salles J.-M., Settele J., Vaissière B. E., Economic valuation of the vulnerability of world agriculture confronted with pollinator decline. Ecol. Econ. 68, 810–821 (2009). 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.06.014
53
Potts S. G., Biesmeijer J. C., Kremen C., Neumann P., Schweiger O., Kunin W. E., Global pollinator declines: Trends, impacts and drivers. Trends Ecol. Evol. 25, 345–353 (2010). 10.1016/j.tree.2010.01.007
54
Biesmeijer J. C., Roberts S. P., Reemer M., Ohlemüller R., Edwards M., Peeters T., Schaffers A. P., Potts S. G., Kleukers R., Thomas C. D., Settele J., Kunin W. E., Parallel declines in pollinators and insect-pollinated plants in Britain and the Netherlands. Science 313, 351–354 (2006). 10.1126/science.1127863
55
Anderson S. H., Kelly D., Ladley J. J., Molloy S., Terry J., Cascading effects of bird functional extinction reduce pollination and plant density. Science 331, 1068–1071 (2011). 10.1126/science.1199092
56
Karp D. S., Mendenhall C. D., Sandí R. F., Chaumont N., Ehrlich P. R., Hadly E. A., Daily G. C., Forest bolsters bird abundance, pest control and coffee yield. Ecol. Lett. 16, 1339–1347 (2013). 10.1111/ele.12173
57
Oerke E.-C., Crop losses to pests. J. Agric. Sci. 144, 31–43 (2006). 10.1017/S0021859605005708
58
Losey J. E., Vaughan M., The economic value of ecological services provided by insects. Bioscience 56, 311–323 (2006). 10.1641/0006-3568(2006)56[311:TEVOES]2.0.CO;2
59
Gessner M. O., Swan C. M., Dang C. K., McKie B. G., Bardgett R. D., Wall D. H., Hättenschwiler S., Diversity meets decomposition. Trends Ecol. Evol. 25, 372–380 (2010). 10.1016/j.tree.2010.01.010
60
Atwood T. B., Hammill E., Greig H. S., Kratina P., Shurin J. B., Srivastava D. S., Richardson J. S., Predator-induced reduction of freshwater carbon dioxide emissions. Nat. Geosci. 6, 191–194 (2013). 10.1038/ngeo1734
61
Hawlena D., Strickland M. S., Bradford M. A., Schmitz O. J., Fear of predation slows plant-litter decomposition. Science 336, 1434–1438 (2012). 10.1126/science.1220097
62
Young H. S., McCauley D. J., Dunbar R. B., Dirzo R., Plants cause ecosystem nutrient depletion via the interruption of bird-derived spatial subsidies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 2072–2077 (2010). 10.1073/pnas.0914169107
63
Whiles M., Hall R. O., Dodds W. K., Verburg P., Huryn A. D., Pringle C. M., Lips K. R., Kilham S. S., Colón-Gaud C., Rugenski A. T., Peterson S., Connelly S., Disease-driven amphibian declines alter ecosystem processes in a tropical stream. Ecosystems (N.Y.) 16, 146–157 (2013). 10.1007/s10021-012-9602-7
64
Wright J. P., Jones C. G., Flecker A. S., An ecosystem engineer, the beaver, increases species richness at the landscape scale. Oecologia 132, 96–101 (2002). 10.1007/s00442-002-0929-1
65
Myers S. S., Gaffikin L., Golden C. D., Ostfeld R. S., Redford K. H., Ricketts T. H., Turner W. R., Osofsky S. A., Human health impacts of ecosystem alteration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110, 18753–18760 (2013). 10.1073/pnas.1218656110
66
Golden C. D., Fernald L. C., Brashares J. S., Rasolofoniaina B. J., Kremen C., Benefits of wildlife consumption to child nutrition in a biodiversity hotspot. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108, 19653–19656 (2011). 10.1073/pnas.1112586108
67
Fa J. E., Peres C. A., Meeuwig J., Bushmeat exploitation in tropical forests: An intercontinental comparison. Conserv. Biol. 16, 232–237 (2002). 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00275.x
68
Boyles J. G., Cryan P. M., McCracken G. F., Kunz T. H., Conservation. Economic importance of bats in agriculture. Science 332, 41–42 (2011). 10.1126/science.1201366
69
Ostfeld R. S., Keesing F., Effects of host diversity on infectious disease. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 43, 157–182 (2012). 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102710-145022
70
Young H. S., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 10.1073/pnas.1404958111 (2014). 10.1073/pnas.1404958111
71
Wood C. L., Lafferty K. D., DeLeo G., Young H. S., Hudson P. J., Kuris A. M., Does biodiversity protect humans against infectious disease? Ecology 95, 817–832 (2014). 10.1890/13-1041.1
72
Palumbi S. R., Humans as the world’s greatest evolutionary force. Science 293, 1786–1790 (2001). 10.1126/science.293.5536.1786
73
Darimont C. T., Carlson S. M., Kinnison M. T., Paquet P. C., Reimchen T. E., Wilmers C. C., Human predators outpace other agents of trait change in the wild. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106, 952–954 (2009). 10.1073/pnas.0809235106
74
Galetti M., Donatti C. I., Pizo M. A., Giacomini H. C., Big fish are the Best: Seed dispersal of Bactris glaucescens by the Pacu Fish ( Piaractus mesopotamicus ) in the Pantanal, Brazil. Biotropica 40, 386–389 (2008). 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2007.00378.x
75
Bodbyl Roels S. A., Kelly J. K., Rapid evolution caused by pollinator loss in Mimulus guttatus. Evolution 65, 2541–2552 (2011). 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2011.01326.x
76
Galetti M., Guevara R., Côrtes M. C., Fadini R., Von Matter S., Leite A. B., Labecca F., Ribeiro T., Carvalho C. S., Collevatti R. G., Pires M. M., Guimarães P. R., Brancalion P. H., Ribeiro M. C., Jordano P., Functional extinction of birds drives rapid evolutionary changes in seed size. Science 340, 1086–1090 (2013). 10.1126/science.1233774
77
Estes J. A., Brashares J. S., Power M. E., Predicting and detecting reciprocity between indirect ecological interactions and evolution. Am. Nat. 181 (suppl. 1), S76–S99 (2013). 10.1086/668120
78
Estes J. A., Terborgh J., Brashares J. S., Power M. E., Berger J., Bond W. J., Carpenter S. R., Essington T. E., Holt R. D., Jackson J. B., Marquis R. J., Oksanen L., Oksanen T., Paine R. T., Pikitch E. K., Ripple W. J., Sandin S. A., Scheffer M., Schoener T. W., Shurin J. B., Sinclair A. R., Soulé M. E., Virtanen R., Wardle D. A., Trophic downgrading of planet Earth. Science 333, 301–306 (2011). 10.1126/science.1205106
79
Ripple W. J., Estes J. A., Beschta R. L., Wilmers C. C., Ritchie E. G., Hebblewhite M., Berger J., Elmhagen B., Letnic M., Nelson M. P., Schmitz O. J., Smith D. W., Wallach A. D., Wirsing A. J., Status and ecological effects of the world’s largest carnivores. Science 343, 1241484 (2014). 10.1126/science.1241484
80
Dornelas M., Gotelli N. J., McGill B., Shimadzu H., Moyes F., Sievers C., Magurran A. E., Assemblage time series reveal biodiversity change but not systematic loss. Science 344, 296–299 (2014). 10.1126/science.1248484
81
Keesing F., Young T. P., Cascading Consequences of the Loss of Large Mammals in an African Savanna. Bioscience 64, 487–495 (2014). 10.1093/biosci/biu059
82
Ceballos G., Ehrlich P. R., Soberón J., Salazar I., Fay J. P., Global mammal conservation: What must we manage? Science 309, 603–607 (2005). 10.1126/science.1114015
83
Barnes R., Blom A., Alers M., A review of the status of forest elephants Loxodonta africana in Central Africa. Biol. Conserv. 71, 125–132 (1995). 10.1016/0006-3207(94)00014-H
84
Bauer H., Van Der Merwe S., Inventory of free-ranging lions Panthera leo in Africa. Oryx 38, 26 (2004). 10.1017/S0030605304000055
85
Blake S., Strindberg S., Boudjan P., Makombo C., Bila-Isia I., Ilambu O., Grossmann F., Bene-Bene L., de Semboli B., Mbenzo V., S’hwa D., Bayogo R., Williamson L., Fay M., Hart J., Maisels F., Forest elephant crisis in the Congo Basin. PLOS Biol. 5, e111 (2007). 10.1371/journal.pbio.0050111
86
Bradshaw C. J., Brook B. W., Disease and the devil: Density-dependent epidemiological processes explain historical population fluctuations in the Tasmanian devil. Ecography 28, 181–190 (2005). 10.1111/j.0906-7590.2005.04088.x
87
Maisels F., Strindberg S., Blake S., Wittemyer G., Hart J., Williamson E. A., Aba’a R., Abitsi G., Ambahe R. D., Amsini F., Bakabana P. C., Hicks T. C., Bayogo R. E., Bechem M., Beyers R. L., Bezangoye A. N., Boundja P., Bout N., Akou M. E., Bene L. B., Fosso B., Greengrass E., Grossmann F., Ikamba-Nkulu C., Ilambu O., Inogwabini B. I., Iyenguet F., Kiminou F., Kokangoye M., Kujirakwinja D., Latour S., Liengola I., Mackaya Q., Madidi J., Madzoke B., Makoumbou C., Malanda G. A., Malonga R., Mbani O., Mbendzo V. A., Ambassa E., Ekinde A., Mihindou Y., Morgan B. J., Motsaba P., Moukala G., Mounguengui A., Mowawa B. S., Ndzai C., Nixon S., Nkumu P., Nzolani F., Pintea L., Plumptre A., Rainey H., de Semboli B. B., Serckx A., Stokes E., Turkalo A., Vanleeuwe H., Vosper A., Warren Y., Devastating decline of forest elephants in central Africa. PLOS One 8, e59469 (2013). 10.1371/journal.pone.0059469
88
McCallum H., Tompkins D. M., Jones M., Lachish S., Marvanek S., Lazenby B., Hocking G., Wiersma J., Hawkins C. E., Distribution and impacts of Tasmanian devil facial tumor disease. EcoHealth 4, 318–325 (2007). 10.1007/s10393-007-0118-0
89
Myers N., Int. Wildl. 5, 5 (1975).
90
Milner-Gulland E., Kholodova M. V., Bekenov A., Bukreeva O. M., Grachev I. A., Amgalan L., Lushchekina A. A., Dramatic declines in saiga antelope populations. Oryx 35, 340 (2001). 10.1017/S0030605300032105
91
Riggio J., Jacobson A., Dollar L., Bauer H., Becker M., Dickman A., Funston P., Groom R., Henschel P., Iongh H., Lichtenfeld L., Pimm S., The size of savannah Africa: A lion’s (Panthera leo) view. Biodivers. Conserv. 22, 17–35 (2013). 10.1007/s10531-012-0381-4
92
N. J. Isaac, Extracting trends from biological recording data in National Biodiversity Network Conference. (London, 2013); available at 10.6084/m9.figshare.428369
93
Hill M. O., Local frequency as a key to interpreting species occurrence data when recording effort is not known. Methods Ecol. Evol. 3, 195–205 (2012). 10.1111/j.2041-210X.2011.00146.x
94
Isaac N. J. B., Arco van Strien J., Tom August A., Marnix de Zeeuw P., Roy David B., Extracting robust trends in species’ distributions from unstructured opportunistic data: A comparison of methods. Methods Ecol. Evol. http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/006999 (2014).
95
van Strien A. J., van Swaay C. A. M., Termaat T., Opportunistic citizen science data of animal species produce reliable estimates of distribution trends if analysed with occupancy models. J. Appl. Ecol. 50, 1450–1458 (2013). 10.1111/1365-2664.12158
96
Szabo J. K., Vesk P. A., Baxter P. W., Possingham H. P., Regional avian species declines estimated from volunteer-collected long-term data using List Length Analysis. Ecol. Appl. 20, 2157–2169 (2010). 10.1890/09-0877.1
97
Roy H. E., Adriaens T., Isaac N. J. B., Kenis M., Onkelinx T., Martin G. S., Brown P. M. J., Hautier L., Poland R., Roy D. B., Comont R., Eschen R., Frost R., Zindel R., Van Vlaenderen J., Nedvěd O., Ravn H. P., Grégoire J.-C., de Biseau J.-C., Maes D., Invasive alien predator causes rapid declines of native European ladybirds. Divers. Distrib. 18, 717–725 (2012). 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2012.00883.x
98
Loh J., Green R. E., Ricketts T., Lamoreux J., Jenkins M., Kapos V., Randers J., The Living Planet Index: Using species population time series to track trends in biodiversity. Philos. R. Soc. London B. Biol. 360, 289–295 (2005). 10.1098/rstb.2004.1584
99
Aebischer N., Potts G., Methods 38, 4 (1990).
100
Alyokhin A., Sewell G., Changes in a lady beetle community following the establishment of three alien species. Biol. Invasions 6, 463–471 (2004). 10.1023/B:BINV.0000041554.14539.74
101
Archer M. E., Changes in abundance of Vespula germanica and V. vulgaris in England. Ecol. Entomol. 26, 1–7 (2001). 10.1046/j.1365-2311.2001.00296.x
102
Barnes H., Periodic fluctuations in the prevalence of the wheat blossom midges. J. Anim. Ecol. 1, 191 (1932). 10.2307/981
103
Barrett J., Virginia R. A., Wall D. H., Adams B. J., Decline in a dominant invertebrate species contributes to altered carbon cycling in a low-diversity soil ecosystem. Glob. Change Biol. 14, 1734–1744 (2008). 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01611.x
104
M. Botham, D. Roy, T. Brereton, I. Middlebrook, Z. Randle, United Kingdom Butterfly Monitoring Scheme: Collated indices 2012, N.-E. I. D. Centre, Ed. (2013).
105
Cameron S. A., Lozier J. D., Strange J. P., Koch J. B., Cordes N., Solter L. F., Griswold T. L., Patterns of widespread decline in North American bumble bees. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108, 662–667 (2011). 10.1073/pnas.1014743108
106
Colla S. R., Packer L., Evidence for decline in eastern North American bumblebees (Hymenoptera: Apidae), with special focus on Bombus affinis Cresson. Biodivers. Conserv. 17, 1379–1391 (2008). 10.1007/s10531-008-9340-5
107
Colunga-Garcia M., Gage S. H., Environ. Entomol. 27, 1574 (1998).
108
Drew R., Hooper G., Population studies of fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in south-east Queensland. Oecologia 56, 153–159 (1983). 10.1007/BF00379685
109
Elliott N., Kieckhefer R., Kauffman W., Effects of an invading coccinellid on native coccinellids in an agricultural landscape. Oecologia 105, 537–544 (1996). 10.1007/BF00330017
110
E. Evans, R. Thorp, S. Jepsen, S. H. Black, The Xerces Society, (2008).
111
R. Fox et al., (Butterfly Conservation and Rothamsted Research, Wareham, Dorset, UK, 2013).
112
J. P. Harmon, E. Stephens, J. Losey, (Springer, New York, 2007), pp. 85–94.
113
Hinds W., Rickard W., Correlations between Climatological Fluctuations and a Population of Philolithus densicollis (Horn) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). J. Anim. Ecol. 42, 341 (1973). 10.2307/3289
114
Kato M., Alternation of bottom-up and top-down regulation in a natural population of an agromyzid leafminer, Chromatomyia suikazurae. Oecologia 97, 9–16 (1994). 10.1007/BF00317903
115
Mattson W. J., Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 73, 390 (1980).
116
A. Milne, Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh. B Biol. Sci. 82, 145 (1984).
117
Milne A., Laughlin R., Coggins R., The 1955 and 1959 Population Crashes in the Leatherjacket, Tipula paludosa Meigen, in Northumberland. J. Anim. Ecol. 34, 529 (1965). 10.2307/2447
118
Moore N., Odonatologica 20, 203 (1991).
119
Osawa N., Population field studies on the aphidophagous ladybird beetle Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae): resource tracking and population characteristics. Popul. Ecol. 42, 115–127 (2000). 10.1007/PL00011990
120
Peters M. K., Lung T., Schaab G., Wägele J. W., Deforestation and the population decline of the army ant Dorylus wilverthi in western Kenya over the last century. J. Appl. Ecol. 48, 697–705 (2011). 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.01959.x
121
Turnock W., Wise I., Matheson F., Abundance of some native coccinellines (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) before and after the appearance of Coccinella septempunctata. Can. Entomol. 135, 391–404 (2003). 10.4039/n02-070
122
Van Dijk T. S., Den Boer P., Oecologia 90, 340 (1992). 10.1007/BF00317690
123
Van Dyck H., Van Strien A. J., Maes D., Van Swaay C. A., Declines in common, widespread butterflies in a landscape under intense human use. Conserv. Biol. 23, 957–965 (2009). 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01175.x
124
Wilson R. J., Maclean I. M., Recent evidence for the climate change threat to Lepidoptera and other insects. J. Insect Conserv. 15, 259–268 (2011). 10.1007/s10841-010-9342-y
125
Wolda H., Dennis B., Oecologia 95, 581 (1993).
126
Barlow J., Overal W. L., Araujo I. S., Gardner T. A., Peres C. A., The value of primary, secondary and plantation forests for fruit-feeding butterflies in the Brazilian Amazon. J. Appl. Ecol. 44, 1001–1012 (2007). 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01347.x
127
Beck J., Schulze C. H., Linsenmair K. E., Fiedler K., J. Trop. Ecol. 18, 33 (2002).
128
Bobo K. S., Waltert M., Fermon H., Njokagbor J., Mühlenberg M., From forest to farmland: Butterfly diversity and habitat associations along a gradient of forest conversion in southwestern Cameroon. J. Insect Conserv. 10, 29–42 (2006). 10.1007/s10841-005-8564-x
129
Bowman D., Woinarski J. C. Z., Sands D. P. A., Wells A., McShane V. J., Slash-and-burn agriculture in the wet coastal lowlands of Papua New Guinea: Response of birds, butterflies and reptiles. J. Biogeogr. 17, 227 (1990). 10.2307/2845121
130
Cleary D. F. R., An examination of scale of assessment, logging and ENSO-induced fires on butterfly diversity in Borneo. Oecologia 135, 313–321 (2003).12698354
131
Collinge S. K., Prudic K. L., Oliver J. C., Effects of local habitat characteristics and landscape context on grassland butterfly diversity. Conserv. Biol. 17, 178–187 (2003). 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.01315.x
132
Ghazoul J., Biodivers. Conserv. 11, 521–541 (2002). 10.1023/A:1014812701423
133
Harvey C. A., Medina A., Sánchez D. M., Vílchez S., Hernández B., Saenz J. C., Maes J. M., Casanoves F., Sinclair F. L., Patterns of animal diversity in different forms of tree cover in agricultural landscapes. Ecol. Appl. 16, 1986–1999 (2006). 10.1890/1051-0761(2006)016[1986:POADID]2.0.CO;2
134
Perfecto I., Mas A., Dietsch T., Vandermeer J., Biodivers. Conserv. 12, 1239–1252 (2003). 10.1023/A:1023039921916
135
Posa M. R. C., Sodhi N. S., Effects of anthropogenic land use on forest birds and butterflies in Subic Bay, Philippines. Biol. Conserv. 129, 256–270 (2006). 10.1016/j.biocon.2005.10.041
136
Ribeiro D. B., Freitas A. V., The effect of reduced-impact logging on fruit-feeding butterflies in Central Amazon, Brazil. J. Insect Conserv. 16, 733–744 (2012). 10.1007/s10841-012-9458-3
137
Stork N., Srivastava D., Watt A., Larsen T., Biodivers. Conserv. 12, 387–410 (2003). 10.1023/A:1022470308591
138
Summerville K. S., Forest lepidopteran communities are more resilient to shelterwood harvests compared to more intensive logging regimes. Ecol. Appl. 23, 1101–1112 (2013). 10.1890/12-0639.1
139
Summerville K. S., Ritter L. M., Crist T. O., Forest moth taxa as indicators of lepidopteran richness and habitat disturbance: A preliminary assessment. Biol. Conserv. 116, 9–18 (2004). 10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00168-X
140
Willott S., Lim D., Compton S., Sutton S., Effects of Selective Logging on the Butterflies of a Bornean Rainforest. Conserv. Biol. 14, 1055–1065 (2000). 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.98427.x
141
Smith F. A., Lyons S. K., Ernest S. K. M., Jones K. E., Kaufman D. M., Dayan T., Marquet P. A., Brown J. H., Haskell J. P., Body mass of late quaternary mammals. Ecology 84, 3403 (2003). 10.1890/02-9003
142
Hubbe A., Hubbe M., Neves W., Early Holocene survival of megafauna in South America. J. Biogeogr. 34, 1642–1646 (2007). 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01744.x
143
Cooper R. A., Maxwell P. A., Crampton J. S., Beu A. G., Jones C. M., Marshall B. A., Completeness of the fossil record: Estimating losses due to small body size. Geology 34, 241 (2006). 10.1130/G22206.1
144
Jass C. N., George C. O., An assessment of the contribution of fossil cave deposits to the Quaternary paleontological record. Quat. Int. 217, 105–116 (2010). 10.1016/j.quaint.2009.11.008
145
Lyons S. K., Smith F. A., Brown J. H., Evol. Ecol. Res. 6, 339 (2004).
146
McConkey K. R., Drake D. R., Flying foxes cease to function as seed dispersers long before they become rare. Ecology 87, 271–276 (2006). 10.1890/05-0386
147
Fukami T., Wardle D. A., Bellingham P. J., Mulder C. P., Towns D. R., Yeates G. W., Bonner K. I., Durrett M. S., Grant-Hoffman M. N., Williamson W. M., Above- and below-ground impacts of introduced predators in seabird-dominated island ecosystems. Ecol. Lett. 9, 1299–1307 (2006). 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00983.x
148
Ogada D. L., Torchin M. E., Kinnaird M. F., Ezenwa V. O., Effects of vulture declines on facultative scavengers and potential implications for mammalian disease transmission. Conserv. Biol. 26, 453–460 (2012). 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2012.01827.x
149
R. Dirzo, A. Miranda, Plant-Animal Interactions: Evolutionary Ecology in Tropical and Temperate Regions (Wiley, New York, 1991).
150
Whiles M. R., Lips K. R., Pringle C. M., Kilham S. S., Bixby R. J., Brenes R., Connelly S., Colon-Gaud J. C., Hunte-Brown M., Huryn A. D., Montgomery C., Peterson S., The effects of amphibian population declines on the structure and function of Neotropical stream ecosystems. Front. Ecol. Environ 4, 27–34 (2006). 10.1890/1540-9295(2006)004[0027:TEOAPD]2.0.CO;2
151
Roldán A. I., Simonetti J. A., Plant-mammal interactions in tropical bolivian forests with different hunting pressures. Conserv. Biol. 15, 617–623 (2001). 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015003617.x
152
Slade E. M., Mann D. J., Lewis O. T., Biodiversity and ecosystem function of tropical forest dung beetles under contrasting logging regimes. Biol. Conserv. 144, 166–174 (2011). 10.1016/j.biocon.2010.08.011
153
Martínez-Estévez L., Balvanera P., Pacheco J., Ceballos G., Prairie dog decline reduces the supply of ecosystem services and leads to desertification of semiarid grasslands. PLOS One 8, e75229 (2013). 10.1371/journal.pone.0075229
154
Young T. P., Okello B., Kinyua D., Palmer T. M., KLEE: A long‐term multi‐species herbivore exclusion experiment in Laikipia, Kenya. African J. Range Forage Sci. 14, 94–102 (1997). 10.1080/10220119.1997.9647929
155
Ogada D. L., Gadd M. E., Ostfeld R. S., Young T. P., Keesing F., Impacts of large herbivorous mammals on bird diversity and abundance in an African savanna. Oecologia 156, 387–397 (2008). 10.1007/s00442-008-0994-1
156
Pringle R. M., Young T. P., Rubenstein D. I., McCauley D. J., Herbivore-initiated interaction cascades and their modulation by productivity in an African savanna. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104, 193–197 (2007). 10.1073/pnas.0609840104
157
McCauley D. J., Keesing F., Young T., Dittmar K., Effects of the removal of large herbivores on fleas of small mammals. J. Vector Ecol. 33, 263–268 (2008). 10.3376/1081-1710-33.2.263
158
McCauley D. J., Keesing F., Young T. P., Allan B. F., Pringle R. M., Indirect effects of large herbivores on snakes in an African savanna. Ecology 87, 2657–2663 (2006). 10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87[2657:IEOLHO]2.0.CO;2
159
Keesing F., Allan B. F., Young T. P., Ostfeld R. S., Effects of wildlife and cattle on tick abundance in central Kenya. Ecol. Appl. 23, 1410–1418 (2013). 10.1890/12-1607.1
160
Goheen J. R., Palmer T. M., Keesing F., Riginos C., Young T. P., Large herbivores facilitate savanna tree establishment via diverse and indirect pathways. J. Anim. Ecol. 79, 372–382 (2010). 10.1111/j.1365-2656.2009.01644.x
161
Palmer T. M., Stanton M. L., Young T. P., Goheen J. R., Pringle R. M., Karban R., Breakdown of an ant-plant mutualism follows the loss of large herbivores from an African savanna. Science 319, 192–195 (2008). 10.1126/science.1151579
162
Young T. P., Okello B. D., Relaxation of an induced defense after exclusion of herbivores: Spines on Acacia drepanolobium. Oecologia 115, 508–513 (1998). 10.1007/s004420050548
163
Huntzinger M., Karban R., Young T. P., Palmer T. M., Relaxation of induced indirect defenses of Acacias following exclusion of mammalian herbivores. Ecology 85, 609–614 (2004). 10.1890/03-3056
164
Kimuyu D. K., Sensenig R. L., Riginos C., Veblen K. E., Young T. P., Native and domestic browsers and grazers reduce fuels, fire temperatures, and acacia ant mortality in an African savanna. Ecol. Appl. 24, 741–749 (2014). 10.1890/13-1135.1
165
Odadi W. O., Karachi M. K., Abdulrazak S. A., Young T. P., African wild ungulates compete with or facilitate cattle depending on season. Science 333, 1753–1755 (2011). 10.1126/science.1208468
166
Petipas R. H., Brody A. K., Termites and ungulates affect arbuscular mycorrhizal richness and infectivity in a semiarid savanna. Botany 92, 233–240 (2014). 10.1139/cjb-2013-0223
167
King E. G., Caylor K. K., Herbivores and mutualistic ants interact to modify tree photosynthesis. New Phytol. 187, 17–21 (2010). 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03286.x

(0)eLetters

eLetters is a forum for ongoing peer review. eLetters are not edited, proofread, or indexed, but they are screened. eLetters should provide substantive and scholarly commentary on the article. Embedded figures cannot be submitted, and we discourage the use of figures within eLetters in general. If a figure is essential, please include a link to the figure within the text of the eLetter. Please read our Terms of Service before submitting an eLetter.

Log In to Submit a Response

No eLetters have been published for this article yet.

Information & Authors

Information

Published In

Science
Volume 345 | Issue 6195
25 July 2014

Submission history

Published in print: 25 July 2014

Permissions

Request permissions for this article.

Acknowledgments

D. Orr, L. Gillespie, B. Rossman, R. Pringle, C. Bello, T. August, G. Powney, F. Pedrosa, and M. Pires helped in providing or analyzing data and producing figures. P. Ehrlich, T. Young, S. Vignieri, and two anonymous reviewers read a previous draft and offered constructive comments. Butterfly Conservation, the British Dragonfly Society, Bees Wasps and Ants Recording Society, the Ground Beetle Recording Scheme, and Bird Life International provided access to unpublished data. We thank Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico, Fundação para o Desenvolvimento do Unesp, Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo, NERC, Joint Nature Conservation Committee, NSF, and Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico for financial support. Vector images are courtesy of University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science.

Authors

Affiliations

Rodolfo Dirzo* [email protected]
Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
Hillary S. Young
Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
Mauro Galetti
Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Estadual Paulista, Rio Claro, SP, 13506-900, Brazil.
Gerardo Ceballos
Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, AP 70-275, México D.F. 04510, Mexico.
Nick J. B. Isaac
Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Benson Lane, Crowmarsh Gifford, Oxfordshire, OX10 8BB, UK.
Ben Collen
Centre for Biodiversity and Environment Research, Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK.

Notes

*
Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

Metrics & Citations

Metrics

Article Usage

Altmetrics

Citations

Cite as

Export citation

Select the format you want to export the citation of this publication.

Cited by

  1. Frugivory and primary seed dispersal of Elaeis guineensis by birds of prey, Brazilian Journal of Biology, 84, (2024).https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.256937
    Crossref
  2. Conservation through Collaboration: Regional Conservation Programs of the North Carolina Zoo, Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens, 4, 2, (292-311), (2023).https://doi.org/10.3390/jzbg4020025
    Crossref
  3. Population Genetic Structure of a Rare Butterfly in a Fragmented South Florida Ecosystem, Insects, 14, 4, (321), (2023).https://doi.org/10.3390/insects14040321
    Crossref
  4. Elephants Not in the Room: Systematic Review Shows Major Geographic Publication Bias in African Elephant Ecological Research, Diversity, 15, 3, (451), (2023).https://doi.org/10.3390/d15030451
    Crossref
  5. Fantastic Flatworms and Where to Find Them: Insights into Intertidal Polyclad Flatworm Distribution in Southeastern Australian Boulder Beaches, Diversity, 15, 3, (393), (2023).https://doi.org/10.3390/d15030393
    Crossref
  6. Temporal Trends in Skull Morphology of the European Bison from the 1950s to the Present Day, Diversity, 15, 3, (377), (2023).https://doi.org/10.3390/d15030377
    Crossref
  7. First Record of Osphya (Melandryidae: Osphyinae) from Chinese Mainland Based on Morphological Evidence and Mitochondrial Genome-Based Phylogeny of Tenebrionoidea, Diversity, 15, 2, (282), (2023).https://doi.org/10.3390/d15020282
    Crossref
  8. The Big Five: Species Distribution Models from Citizen Science Data as Tool for Preserving the Largest Protected Saproxylic Beetles in Italy, Diversity, 15, 1, (96), (2023).https://doi.org/10.3390/d15010096
    Crossref
  9. Population Subdivision in the Gopher Frog (Rana capito) across the Fragmented Longleaf Pine-Wiregrass Savanna of the Southeastern USA, Diversity, 15, 1, (93), (2023).https://doi.org/10.3390/d15010093
    Crossref
  10. Planted pollinator habitat in agroecosystems: How does the pollinator community respond?, Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 11, (2023).https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2023.1060834
    Crossref
  11. See more
Loading...

View Options

Check Access

Log in to view the full text

AAAS ID LOGIN

AAAS login provides access to Science for AAAS Members, and access to other journals in the Science family to users who have purchased individual subscriptions.

Log in via OpenAthens.
Log in via Shibboleth.

More options

Register for free to read this article

As a service to the community, this article is available for free. Login or register for free to read this article.

Purchase this issue in print

Buy a single issue of Science for just $15 USD.

View options

PDF format

Download this article as a PDF file

Download PDF

Full Text

FULL TEXT

Media

Figures

Multimedia

Tables

Share

Share

Share article link

Share on social media