Britain and the ‘Hand-Over’ of Italian War Criminals to Yugoslavia, 1945–48
Abstract
This article focuses on British policy towards the treatment of alleged Italian war criminals at the end of the second world war and, in particular, those requested by Yugoslavia for extradition. It reveals that far from conspiring to shield Italians registered as war criminals by the United Nations War Crimes Commission (UNWCC), Britain endeavoured to ensure that they were brought to justice. It also assesses the pressures that affected the implementation of British ‘hand-over’ policy and examines the developments that led to the decision by the British government to pass on to the Italians the responsibility of implementing ‘hand-overs’ and punishing Italian war criminals.
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1 Louis De Bernières, Captain Corelli’ s Mandolin (London 1994); Mediterraneo, film, directed by Gabrielle Salvatore, 1991.
2 On Britain and its role in the Allied Administration of Italy see D.W. Ellwood, Italy, 1943–45 (Leicester 1985); C.R.S. Harris, The Allied Administration of Italy, 1943–45 (London 1957); Sir L. Woodward, British Foreign Policy during the Second World War, vols II and III (London 1971).
3 Harris, op. cit., 106–8 and 131; FRUS, 1945, vol. V, 1090–1; FRUS, 1946, vol. V, 831. The Revised Armistice Terms of 1946 also contained the same obligation.
4 The United Nations War Crimes Commission, History of the United Nations War Crimes Commission and the Development of the Laws of War (London 1948), hereafter UNWCC, 350–2; FO 371/51024/U4463/29/73, C. 110, UNWCC minutes, 62nd meeting, 23.5.1945.
5 BBC, Timewatch, Ken Kirby and Michael Palumbo, Fascist Legacy: A Promise Unfulfilled, Part I, Elstree 1989.
6 Filippo Focardi, ‘La memoria della guerra e il mito del “bravo italiano”: origine e affermazione di un autoritratto collettivo’ in Italia Contemporanea’, n. 220–1, settembre–dicembre 2000, 393–9; Giorgio Rochat, Ufficiali e soldati. L’esercito italiano dalla prima alla seconda guerra mondiale (Udine 2000); Angelo Del Boca, Gli Italiani in Libia, I e II vol. (Bari 1988); Angelo Del Boca, I gas di Mussolini. Il fascismo e la guerra d’Etiopia (Roma 1996); Romano Canosa, Graziani. Il maresciallo d’Italia, dalla guerra d’Etiopia alla repubblica di Salò (Milano 2004); Giacomo Scotti, ‘Bono italiano’: Gli italiani in Jugoslavia (1941–43) (Milano 1977); Stefano Bianchini and Francesco Previtera, 6 aprile 1941: L’attacco italiano alla Jugoslavia (Milano 1993); Davide Rodogno, Il nuovo ordine mediterraneo. Le politiche di occupazione dell’Italia fascista (1940–1943) (Torino 2002).
7 Harris, op. cit., 106–8 and 131; FRUS, 1945, vol. V, 1090–1; FRUS, 1946, vol. V, 831. The Revised Armistice Terms of 1946 also contained the same obligation.
8 UNWCC, op. cit., 374.
9 UNWCC, op. cit., 109–28; T. Bower, Blind Eye to Murder: Britain, America and the Purging of Nazi Germany — A Pledge Betrayed (London 1981), 41, 50–8; PREM 4, 110/10, 6.7.1942; WO 32/10790, 18.5.1942.
10 UNWCC, op. cit., 2, 5 and 374.
11 Bower, op. cit., 28–32 and 48–50.
12 Hansard, Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, Fifth Series, 1944–45, vol. 408, col. 1359 (London 1945); FO 371/51013/U1687/29/73, minute by J.C. Wardrop, Reconstruction Department of the FO, 9.3.1945; FO 371/51014/U1849/29/73, minutes by P.S. Falla, Reconstruction Department of the FO, 12.3.1945 and Wardrop, 10.3.1945; FO 371/51018/U3095/29/73, Interdepartmental Committee on War Crimes, minutes, 24.4.1945; FO 371/51017/U2986/29/73, APW(45)58, 19.4.1945.
13 CAB 65/42, WM83(44), item 4, 28.6.1944.
14 CAB 66/57, WP(44)648, memorandum by Eden, 4.11.1944; CAB 65/44, WM152(44), 21.11.1944; CAB 65/44, WM152(44), 21.11.1944.
15 Bower, op.cit., 36–7.
16 R.P. Domenico, Italian Fascists on Trial, 1943–1948 (Chapel Hill, NC 1991), 24–34; M. Palumbo, ‘Genocidio all’ Italiana’, Epoca, 17.1.1988; UNWCC, op. cit., 189–90 and 67–70; CAB 79/32, COS(45)108th meeting, 24.4.1945; FO 371/51018/U3095/29/73, directive, JSM (Joint Staff Mission) 733, approved on 26.4.1945; FO 371/51017/U2986/29/73, APW(45)58, 19.4.45; FO 371/51044/U2404/55/73; letter, AFHQ to FO, 3.4.1945.
17 UNWCC, op. cit., 189–90, 67–70; FO 371/57556/U5985/126/73, telegram, no. F 67661, AFHQ to WO, 13.6.1946; FO 371/57556/U6560/126/73, 6.8.1946, doc. C. 217, UNWCC report 31.7.1946; letter, A.W. Mariam, Ethiopian Acting Vice Minister for Foreign Affairs to FO, 22.7.1946; FO 371/51044/U2108/55/73, minutes by Wardrop, 3.4.1945, and J.G. Ward, acting head of Reconstruction Department, 27.4.1945.
18 PREM 8/515, COS(46)43(O), 13.2.1946. E.G.H. Pedaliu, Britain, Italy and the Origins of the Cold War (London 2003), 3, 10.
19 CAB 65/41, WM34(44), item 4, 13.3.1944; CAB 65/42, WM83(44), item 4, 28.6.1944; CAB 66/51, WP(44)330, memorandum, 16.6.1944; CAB 66/51, WP(44)294, 2.6.1944; FO 371/51009/U123/29/73, telegram, TAM 413, CCS to Field Marshal H. Alexander, SACMED, 4.1.1945; GEN 59/5, Interdepartmental Committee on War Crimes, Annex: ‘Surrender of War Criminals’, 10.4.1945; NARA RG 84, Decimal Files, 800–801.2, Box 118, CCS to AFHQ, 5.4.1945; FO 371/51045/U5060/55/73, minutes by P.H. Dean, War Crimes Section, 2.7.1945, Sir F.R. Hoyer-Millar, Head of the Western Department, 26.6.1945, Sir Oliver Harvey, Superintending Under-Secretary of the Western Department of the FO, 27.6.1945.
20 B. Arcidiacono, ‘La Gran Bretagna e il “pericolo communista” in Italia: gestazione, nascita e primo sviluppo di una percezione, 1943–44’, Storia delle Relazioni Internationali, vol. III (1985), 239–66; D.W. Ellwood, ‘Al tramonto dell’impero britannico: Italia e Balkani nella strategia inglese, 1942–1946’, Italia Contemporanea, vol. XXXI (1979), 73–92, passim; G. Ross, ‘Foreign Office Attitudes to the Soviet Union, 1941–45’, Journal of Contemporary History, 16, 3 (July 1981), 521–40; V.H. Rothwell, Britain and the Cold War, 1941–47 (London 1982), 74–290,passim; D.C. Watt, ‘Britain, the United States and the Opening of the Cold War’ in R. Ovendale (ed.), The Foreign Policy of the British Labour Governments, 1945–51 (Leicester 1984), 50–5, 57–9; A. Adamthwaite, ‘Britain and the World, 1945: The View from the Foreign Office’ in J. Becker and F. Knipping (eds), Power in Europe? Great Britain, France, Italy and Germany in a Postwar World, 1945–50 (Berlin 1986), 13; J. Kent, ‘British Policy and the Origins of the Cold War’ in M.P. Leffler and D.S. Painter (eds), Origins of the Cold War: An International History (London 1994), 139–53; A. Varsori, ‘Great Britain and Italy, 1945–56: The Partnership between a Great Power and a Minor Power?’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, vol. 3 (1992), 188–98; Sir L. Woodward, British Foreign Policy during the Second World War, vol. V (London 1976), 471–91.
21 FO 371/57659/U5780/4473/73, telegram, no. 276, Paris to FO, 30.1.1946; FO 371/57521/U7950/70/73, minutes of Allied Control Council, Italy, ACI, 58th meeting, 25.10.1946; FO 371/51033/U6168/55/73, Greek Government Gazette, Part I, no. 145, Law no. 384, Archbishop Damaskinos, the Greek Prime Minister, 8.6.45; Historical Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Greece, Files: 24.6, 24.7, 28.8, 35.6, 35.4, 24.15: ‘War Crimes’, 1945; P. Palumbo, The Waldheim Files (London 1988), 18, 137.
22 BBC, Timewatch, Fascist Legacy: A Promise Unfulfilled, Part I, op. cit.; UNWCC., op. cit., 350–1, 488; Yugoslav State Official Publication, Italian War Crimes in Yugoslavia (Belgrade 1945), 52–81 and passim; P. Branko, War and Revolution in Yugoslavia (Belgrade 1985), passim; M. Djilas, Wartime: With Tito and the Partisans (London 1980), 26, 38, 74, 124 and 216; M.J. Milazzo, The Chetnik Movement and the Yugoslav Resistance (Baltimore, MD 1975), 52–5; F. Singleton, Twentieth Century Yugoslavia (London 1976), 86–7; S. Trew, Britain, Mihailovic and the Chetniks, 1941–2 (London 1998), 13–14; FO 371/51023/U4210/29/73, doc. C 110, UNWCC minutes, 14.5.1945; FO 371/51023/U4229/29/73, doc. C 115, UNWCC minutes, 24.5.1945; record of UNWCC Conference of 6.5.1945.
23 BBC, Timewatch, Fascist Legacy: A Promise Unfulfilled, Part I, op. cit.; Pedaliu, op. cit., 12–15.
24 TS 26/99 and TS26/132, passim.
25 FO 371/51044/U2584/55/73, articles in the Daily Herald and the Daily Worker, 10.4.1945; FO 371/51046/U9723/55/73, telegram, no. 1934, FO to Belgrade, 17.12.1945; telegram, no. 2701, FO to Rome, 17.12.1945; Singleton, op. cit., 86.
26 FO 371/51015/U2089/29/73, Annex C, brief for the Lord Chancellor prepared by Ward, 15.3.1945; FO 371/51023/U4276/29/73, telegram, no. 2186, Sir Archibald Clark-Kerr, British ambassador to the Soviet Union, to FO, 2.6.1945.
27 FO 371/51044/U1025/55/73, telegram, no. 175, Belgrade to FO, 13.2.1945; FO 371/51044/U944/55/73, telegram, no. 143, Belgrade to FO, 3.2.1945.
28 FO 371/51018/U3182/29/73, APW(45)58, item 10, 26.4.1945; FO 371/51019/U3354/29/73, minutes by Wardrop, 28.4.1945 and Dean, 30.4.1945; U3319/29/73, minute by Dean, 27.4.1945; FO 371/51017/U2986/29/73, APW(45)58, 19.4.45; A.J. Lane, ‘Coming to Terms with Tito: Britain and Yugoslavia, 1945–49’ in R.J. Aldrich and M.F. Hopkins (eds), Intelligence, Defence and Diplomacy: British Policy in the Postwar World (London 1994), 14.
29 FO 371/51044/U2583/55/73, article in the Daily Telegraph, 6.4.1945; FO 371/51044/U2584/55/73, articles in the Daily Herald and the Daily Worker, 6.4.1945; article in the Manchester Guardian, 6.4.1945.
30 FO 371/51044/U3023/55/73, minutes by Ward and Wardrop, 10.4.1945; Hansard, Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, Fifth Series, 1944–45, vol. 410, col. 2438 (London 1945); ibid., vol. 408, col. 1359 (London 1945); FO 371/51013/U1565/29/73, telegram, no. 79, FO to Rome, 1.3.1945; FO 371/51013/U1687/29/73, minute by Wardrop, 9.3.1945; FO 371/51014/U1849/29/73, minutes by Falla, 12.3.1945 and Wardrop, 10.3.1945.
31 WO 32/11729, letter, Sir F. Bovenschen, Permanent Under-Secretary, WO to Sir A. Cadogan, Permanent Under-Secretary, FO, 16.3.1945; FO 371/51010/U564/29/73, letter, Bovenschen to Cadogan, 18.1.1945; CAB 65/44, WM152(44), 21.11.1944; FO 371/51019/U3392/29/73, telegram, no. 90066, WO to AFHQ, 30.4.1945; FO 371/51024/U4418/29/73, letter, FO to Rome, 7.6.1945.
32 FRUS, 1945, vol. IV, 1154, 1167 and 1172; FRUS, 1945, vol. V, 1229, 1233, 1266 and 1291–4; R.G. Rabel, ‘Prologue to Containment: The Truman Administration’s Response to the Trieste Crisis of May 1945’, Diplomatic History, no. 10, 141–60; B.C. Novak, Trieste, 1945–54: The Ethnic, Political and Ideological Struggle (Chicago, IL 1970), 156–201; Harris, op. cit., 332–43; Bohlen, Witness to History, 1929–69 (New York 1969), 253; A.J. Lane, Britain, the Cold War and Yugoslav Unity, 1941–49 (Brighton 1996), 53–7; Pedaliu, op. cit., 17–18.
33 FO 371/51030/U5413/29/73, telegram, FAN 591/FACS 259, Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS) to Allied Commanders, 11.7.1945; telegram, NOD 978, Chiefs of Staff Committee (COS) to Joint Staff Mission (JSM), Washington 20.9.1945; FO 371/57519/U2338/70/73, letter, Scott-Fox to Under-Secretary of State, WO, 16.3.1946.
34 FO 371/51030/U5413/29/73, telegram, FAN 591/FACS 259, Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS) to Allied Commanders, 11.7.1945; FO 371/57519/U2338/70/73, letter, D.S. Scott-Fox, War Crimes Section of the Foreign Office (WCS) and head of the British War Crimes Executive, to Under-Secretary of State, WO, 16.3.1946.
35 NARA RG 59, E 381, Lot Files 54D328, Boxes 1–10, Folder: War Criminals, telegram to SACMED, 30.4.1945; War Department memorandum, 3.10.1945; State Department memorandum, 10.6.1947; R.G. Rabel, Between East and West: Trieste, the United States and the Cold War, 1941–54 (Durham, NC 1988), 52–73 and 89–91; Bohlen, op. cit., 253; FO 371/57519/U3031/70/73, minute by R.A. Beaumont, FO official and UK delegate at UNWCC and FO, 21.3.1946.
36 FO 371/59400/R1288/58/92, 25.1.1946, letter, Sargent to Stapleton, 29.1.1946; Lane, Britain, the Cold War and Yugoslav Unity, op. cit., 97–8; A.J. Lane, ‘Putting Britain Right with Tito: The Displaced Persons Question in Anglo-Yugoslav Relations, 1946–47’, European History Quarterly, vol. 22 (1992), passim; Bohlen, op. cit., 253; FRUS, 1945, vol. V, 1229, 1233, 1266 and 1291–4; FRUS, 1946, vol. II, 728; FRUS, 1946, vol. VI, 869–70 and 887–8.
37 WO 310/4, FAN 591/FACS 259, CCS to Alexander and Eisenhower, 11.7.1945.
38 FO 371/51045/U6583/55/73, RESMED to FO, 30.8.1945; FO 371/51045/U6636/55/73, telegram, no. 1644, Holy See to RESMED, 3.9.1945; FO 371/51045/U6920/55/73, letter, Ivor Thomas, MP, chairman of ‘Friends of Italy Committee’, to Hector McNeil, Minister of State, 3.9.1945; letter, McNeil to Thomas, 8.9.1945; FO 371/51045/U6960/55/73, Bovenschen to Sargent, 11.9.1945; FO 371/51046/U6973/55/73, telegram, no. 1415, Rome to FO, 12.9.1945; FO 371/51046/U7034/55/73, telegram, no. 426, Rome to FO, 14.9.1945; FO 371/51046/U8089/55/73, telegram, no. 458, FO to Rome, 17.10.1945; The Times, article, 30.7.1945.
39 FO 371/51046/U8375/55/73, Yugoslav Note, P. no. 3142, 19.10.1945; FO 371/51045/U5064/55/73, telegram, Sir R.S. Stevenson, British ambassador to Yugoslavia to FO, 18.6.1945; WO 310/176, letter, Shapcott to AFHQ, 6.9.1945.
40 WO 310/179, APO 394, 18A, Handover — General Policy: Italians Listed as War Criminals, 2.9.45.
41 Domenico, op. cit., 43. For a detailed treatment of this issue see Filippo Focardi and Lutz Klinkhammer, ‘La questione dei “criminali di guerra” italiani e una Commissione di inchiesta dimenticata’ in Italia Contemporanea, IV, 3, luglio 2001, 497–528; and Hanz Woller, Die Abrechnung mit dem Faschismus in Italien, 1943 bis 1948 (Munich 1996).
42 Varsori, op. cit., 192; Ellwood, Italy, op. cit., 9.
43 WO 204/2194, S-410, Stone to AFHQ, 9.1.1945; WO 310/179, APO 394, 18A, Handover — General Policy, 2.9.45.
44 FO 371/59400/R1288/58/92, letter, Sargent to D.C. Stapleton, Cabinet Offices, 29.1.1946; FO 371/57519/U2338/70/73, letter, Scott-Fox to Under-Secretary of State, WO, 16.3.1946; NARA RG 84, 711.6, Box 109, letter, 13 Corps to AFHQ, 13.10.1945; Bower, op. cit., 202–3, 229; Lane, Britain, the Cold War and Yugoslav Unity, op. cit., 97–8.
45 FO 371/51045/U4231/55/73, minute by A.D.M. Ross, Italian Section of the Western Department, FO, 6.6.1945; FO 371/51045/U4596/55/73, minute by Beaumont, 17.6.1945; FO 371/51045/U5538/55/73, minutes by Harvey, 12.7.1945 and Scott-Fox, 12.7.1945; FO 371/51045/U6528/55/73, minute by Scott-Fox, 16.8.1945; FO 371/51046/U7842/55/73, telegram, no. 458, Norton, Berne to FO, 28.9.1945; minutes by Scott-Fox, 15.10.1945, and Dean, 17.10.1945.
46 FO 371/51040/U9273/29/73, letter, Scott-Fox to Major V.A.R. Isham, AG-3, WO, 11.12.1945; FO 371/51039/U8379/29/73, letter, Yugoslav ambassador to FO, 23.10.1945.
47 NARA RG 84, 711.6, Box 109, memorandum, Stone to AFHQ, 28.8.1945; letter, no. 2208, Alexander Kirk, American ambassador to Italy, to J. Grew, Acting Secretary of State, 4.9.1945; FO 371/51045/U6815/55/73, telegram, no. 1644, Broad to FO, 8.9.1945; FO 371/51045/U6929/55/73, telegram, no. 1670, RESMED to FO, 11.9.1945; FO 371/51046/U8204/55/73, letter, Dean to Colonel G.R. Bradshaw, Deputy Director of Personnel Services at the WO, 1.11.1945; WO 311/594, telegram, NOD 939, WO to JSM, 14.8.1945.
48 FO 371/49954/ZM4139/2273/22, memorandum by Major-General Browning, MMIA, undated; WO 310/4, telegram, no. 234/5, Deputy Judge Advocate General’s Office (DJAG) to GHQ. CMF, 30.12.1945; FO 371/51046/U9723/55/73, War Office memorandum, 22.11.1945; minutes by Beaumont, 7.12.1945 and 12.11.1945, Colville, 12.12.1945, and Dean, 13.12.1945; letter, SACMED to JAG, 27.11.1945. See also Pedaliu, op. cit., 35–57, passim; E.G.H. Pedaliu, ‘Britain and the Reconstruction of the Italian Post-Fascist Armed Forces, 1943–48’, Cold War History, vol. 2 (2001), 39–68, passim.
49 FO 371/57519/U2338/70/73, letter, Scott-Fox to Under-Secretary of State, WO, 16.3.1946.
50 Lane, ‘Coming to Terms with Tito’, op. cit., 17.
51 FO 371/51039/U8375/29/73, letter by Attlee to the Yugoslav ambassador in London, 15.12.1945; FO 371/51039/U8379/29/73, P. no. 3142, note by the Yugoslav embassy, 19.10.1945; WO 310/4, telegram, FAN 633, CCS to AFHQ, 8.12.1945.
52 NARA RG 59, 54D328, E381, Box 4, telegram, letter by David McKey, Chargé d’affaires ad interim, Rome, to the Secretary of State, 6.4.1946; telegram, no. 359, 8.6.1946; FO 371/57519/U4301/70/73, telegram, no. 2524, Earl of Halifax, the British ambassador to US, to FO, 20.4.1946.
53 FO 371/51019/U3354/29/73, minute by Dean, 30.4.1945; FO 371/57519/U2652/70/73, minutes by Colville, 15.3.1946; Ross, 15.3.1946, Beaumont, 12.3.1946 and 18.3.1946 and Scott-Fox, 14.3.1946; letter, Commander-in-Chief to the Under-Secretary of State, 26.2.1946; letter, Scott-Fox to Savill, 18.3.1946; FO 371/51046/U9732/55/73, telegram, no. 2701, FO to Rome, 17.12.1945.
54 FO 371/519/U3483/70/73, telegram, no. 480, Charles to FO, 30.3.1946; FO 371/51046/U9732/55/73, telegram, no. 1934, FO to Belgrade, 17.12.1945; FO 371/57520/U5833/70/73, telegram, no. 461, Broad to FO, 3.3.1946; minute by Beaumont, 6.6.1946; letter, Sir Robert Craigie, chairman of the UNWCC, 3.5.1945; FO 371/57520/U4353/70/73, telegram, no. 591, FO to Broad, 11.5.1946; letter, Bradshaw to Beaumont, 25.4.1946; telegram, no. 55502, WO to AFHQ, 19.4.1946; minutes, by Scott-Fox, 1.5.1946, 3.5.1946, 25.4.1945 and 10.5.1946, Sir Basil Newton, Legal Section of the Foreign Office, 2.5.1946, 6.5.1946 and 29.4.1946, W.E. Beckett, FO Legal Section, 29.4.1946, Colville, 30.4.1946, Sargent, 10.5.1946, Ross, 30.4.1946; telegram, no. 4048, FO to Washington, 1.5.1946.
55 FO 371/57519/U3013/70/73, minute by Beaumont, 21.3.1946.
56 Ibid.; Bower, op. cit., 202–3.
57 FO 371/57519/U2652/70/73, minutes by Colville, 15.3.1946, Ross, 15.3.1946, 12.3.1946 and 18.3.1946, Scott-Fox, 14.3.1946; letter, Scott-Fox to Savill, 18.3.1946; letter, FO to Bradshaw, 11.4.1946.
58 FO 371/49499/R1288/58/92, letter, Sargent to Stapleton, 27.1.1946; FO 371/51046/U10267/55/73, telegram, no. 28, saving, FO to Belgrade, 8.2.1946; telegram, no. 2375, Stevenson, Belgrade to FO, 19.12.1945; FO 371/57519/U3483/70/73, telegram, no. 480, Charles to FO, 30.3.1946; FO 371/57519/U2338/70/73, letter, WCS to Under-Secretary of State, WO, 16.3.1946; TS 26/132, no. 21A, 26.3.1946.
59 FO 371/57555/U2568/126/73, letter, Savill to Beaumont, 2.3.1946.
60 FO 371/57519/U3691/70/73, telegram, no. 338, Broad to FO, 5.4.1946; FO 371/57520/U4331/70/73, minutes by Beaumont, 24.4.1946 and Scott-Fox, 26.4.1946; telegram, no. 377, Broad to FO, 20.4.1946.
61 UNWCC, op. cit., 408–9.
62 FO 371/57556/U5984/126/73, Italian note-verbale, 15.6.1946.
63 FO 371/57519/U3691/70/73, telegram, no. 338, Broad to FO, 5.4.1946; FO 371/57520/U4331/70/73, telegram, no. 377, Broad to FO, 20.4.1946; FO 371/57556/U5984/126/73, minutes by Beaumont, 24.6.1946, Beckett, 26.6.1946, Ross, 28.6.1946, and Garner, 16.6.1946.
64 FO 371/57556/U5984/126/73, minutes by Beaumont, 24.6.1946, Beckett, 26.6.1946, Ross, 28.6.1946, and Garner, 16.6.1946; letter, Scott-Fox to Hood, 1.7.1946; letter, Hood to Scott-Fox, 8.7.1946; FO 371/57519/U3691/70/73, letter, Broad to FO, 5.4.1946; FO 371/57523/U7877/70/73, letter, McNeil, Minister of State, FO to Captain J.W. Snow, House of Commons, 30.10.1946; draft minute to the Minister of State, 13.10.1946.
65 FO 371/57519/U3031/70/73, minutes by Beaumont, 1.3.1946, Beckett, 22.3.1946, Ross, 25.3.1946; telegram, no. 273, Broad to FO, 19.3.1946; telegram, no. 454, FO to Rome, 28.3.1946; telegram, no. 494, FO to Belgrade, 28.3.1946; letter, Scott-Fox to Savill, 18.3.1946.
66 For the tense atmosphere at the 1946 CFM meetings see J.L. Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–47 (New York 1972), 304–15 and 323–5; H. Feis, From Trust to Terror: The Onset of the Cold War, 1945–1950 (London 1970), 121–35; D. Yergin, Shattered Peace: The Origins of the Cold War and the National Security State (Boston, MA 1978), 221–3; J.F. Byrnes, Speaking Frankly (New York 1947), 138–55; Lord Gladwyn, The Memoirs of Lord Gladwyn (London 1972), 193.
67 FO 371/57659/U5781/4473/73, Part III: draft Soviet proposal, undated; FO 371/57659/U6060/4473/73, Part III: UK, US and French draft proposal, undated.
68 FO 371/57659/U5686/4473/73, CFM meeting, 1.5.1946; FO 371/57659/U5780/4473/73, telegram, no. 276, A. Duff Cooper, British ambassador to France, to FO, 31.5.1946, 30.5.1946; FO 60703/ZM1435/1286/22, CFM(D)(46) 46th meeting, item 3: US delegation proposal, CFM(D)(46)65, 1.5.1946; FRUS, 1946, vol. II, 209–14.
69 FO 371/57659/U5686/4473/73, CFM meeting, 28.5.1946; FO 371/57659/U4784/4473/73, 3.5.1946, British record of CFM (46) 7th meeting, item 2, 2.5.1946; FO 371/60705/Z1855/1286/22, CFM(D)(46) 55th meeting, item 4, 28.5.1946.
70 FO 371/57659/U5780/4473/73, telegram, no. 276, Cooper to FO, 31.5.1946, 30.5.1946; FO 371/57659/U5686/4473/73, minutes by Scott-Fox, 25.5.1946 and Newton, 27.5.1946; FO 371/57659/U5781/4473/73, letter, Beaumont to Hood, 14.6.1946; FO 371/60607/ZM1908/1286/22, UK proposal, CFM(D)(46)108, 1.6.1946.
71 FO 371/60607/ZM1950/1286/22, CFM(D)(46) 61st meeting, 3.6.1946; FO 371/60710/ZM2276/1286/22, CFM(D)(46) 83rd meeting, 26.6.1946; for the text of article 45 see Sir J. Wheeler-Bennett and A. Nicholls, The Semblance of Peace: The Political Settlement after the Second World War (London 1972), 671.
72 FO 371/57521/U6241/70/73, telegram, no. 1044, Charles to FO, 6.7.1946; FO 371/60711/ZM2641/1286/22, telegram, no. 243, Charles to FO, 1.8.1946.
73 J.E. Miller, ‘Taking off the Gloves: The United States and the Italian Election of 1948’, Diplomatic History vol. VII (1983), 39–40; D. Travis, ‘Communism and Resistance in Italy, 1943–8’ in T. Judt (ed.), Resistance and Revolution in Mediterranean Europe, 1939–48 (London 1989), 216.
74 FO 371/60711/ZM2371/1286/22, telegram, no. 1051, Charles to FO, 6.7.1946; FO 371/60713/ZM2514/1286/22, despatch, no. 369, Charles to Bevin, 18.7.1946; FO 371/60710/ZM2276/1286/22, CFM(D)(46) 83rd meeting, 26.6.1946; FO 371/60711/ZM2371/1286/22, telegram, no. 1051, Charles to FO, 6.7.1946; FO 371/60711/ZM2514/1286/22, despatch, no. 369, Charles to Bevin, 18.7.1946; minutes by Ross, 19.7.1946 and 24.7.1946 and Hoyer-Millar, 19.7.1946; FO 371/60711/ZM2692/1286/22, minute by Ross, 24.7.1946.
75 FO 371/57556/U5984/126/73, minutes by Beaumont, 24.6.1946, Beckett, 26.6.1946, Ross, 28.6.1946, Garner, 16.6.1946; letter, Scott-Fox to Viscount Hood, 1.7.1946; letter, Hood to Scott-Fox, 8.7.1946; FO 371/57520/U6159/70/73, telegram, no. 6786, FO to Washington, 10.7.1946; FO 371/57520/U6159/70/73, 1.7.1946, telegram, NAF 1165, Morgan to CCS, 26.6.1946; FO/371/57520/U5409/70/73, letter, WSC to British embassy, Washington, 28.6.1946; NARA RG 84, 711.5–711.6, Box 108, letter, British Political Advisor’s Office to Morgan, 15.5.1946.
76 FO 371/57521/U6459/70/73, telegram, no. 4758, Inverchapel to FO, 25.7.1946; telegram, no. 7538, FO to Washington, 1.8.1946; FO 371/57521/U6989/70/73, minute by Garner, 3.9.1946; letter, Washington to WCS, 28.8.1946; NARA RG 59, E. 381, 54D238, Folder: War Criminals, memorandum, October 1946; FRUS, 1946, vol. VI, 867–978, passim.
77 FO 371/57522/U6561/71/73, letter, Zivkovic to Craigie, 23.7.1946; letter, Craigie to Zivkovic, 31.7.1946; FO 371/57523/U7435/71/73, CCS 705/19, Appendix ‘B’, Enclosure ‘B’, 20.9.1946; memorandum drafted by Colonel Wade, Research Officer, UNWCC, 6.8.1946; FO 371/57523/U7435/71/73, Enclosure ‘C’: Discussion, 20.9.1946; minutes by Garner, 10.8.1946 and Colville, 12.8.1946; United Nations War Crimes Commission, Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals, vol. 4 (London 1948), 1–95, passim.
78 FO 371/57523/U7435/71/73, minutes by Garner, 13.8.1946 and Colville, 12.8.1946.
79 FO 371/57523/U7435/71/73, letter, Craigie to FO, 31.7.1946.
80 FO 371/57566/U7437/126/73, letter, British embassy, Rome to WCS, 27.9.1946; NARA RG 84, 711.5–711.6, Box 108, letter, Key to Secretary of State, 25.9.1946.
81 F. Ferraresi, Threats to Democracy: The Radical Right in Italy after the War (Princeton, NJ 1996), 18–20; Domenico, op. cit., 207–8; L. Mercuri, L’epurazione in Italia, 1943–1948 (Cuneo 1988), 185; A. Battaglia, I Giudici e la politica (Bari 1962), 90–4; R. Canosa and P. Federico, La magistratura in Italia dal 1945 a oggi (Bologna 1974), 130–1; C. Pavone, La continuità dello Stato: Istituzioni e uomini (Torino 1974), 252; FO 371/57566/U7363/126/73, minute by Ross, 1.10.1946.
82 M. Roatta, Otto milioni di baionette (Milan 1946).
83 R. Graziani, Ho difeso la patria (Roma 1948).
84 Focardi and Klinkhammer, La questione, op. cit., 497–528; Canosa, Graziani. Il maresciallo d’Italia, op. cit.
85 FO 371/57521/U7678/70/73, telegram, no. 268, Scarlett to FO, 16.10.1946; FO 371/57659/U7187/4473/73, letter, WCS to Scarlett, 26.9.1946; minutes by Garner, 21.10.1946 and Ross, 25.10.1946; FO 371/57659/U6989/70/73, letter, British embassy, Washington to WCS, 28.8.1946; letter, Garner to Stapleton, 6.9.1946; FO 371/57659/U8105/70/73, minutes by Garner, 3.12.1946 and Ross, 4.12.1946; FO 371/57659/U8137/70/73, minute by Garner, 9.12.1946; letter, Ward to Attlee, 18.11.1946.
86 FO 371/57557/U8026/126/73, minute by Garner, 21.11.1946.
87 FO 371/57521/U8105/70/73, minutes by Garner, 3.12.1946 and Ross, 4.12.1946; FO 371/57521/U8137/70/73, letter, Ward to Attlee, 18.11.1946.
88 FO 371/57521/U7911/70/73, letter, Bevin to the Yugoslav chargé d’affaires, 31.10.1946; letter, Rome to WCS, 23.10.1945; FO 371/66567/U715/24/73, minutes by F.D.W. Brown, Italian Section of the Western Department of the FO, 12.6.1947; Garner, 11.6.1947 and 23.6.1947; letter, WCS to Rome, 1.7.1947; FO 371/66567/U786/24/73, letter, Washington to WCS, 23.7.1947.
89 FO 371/57521/U8105/70/73, Yugoslav note, no. P 1677, 27.11.1946; FO 371/57521/U7678/70/73, Yugoslav note, 31.10.1946; FO 371/57521/U8137/70/73, Ward to Clement Attlee, 18.11.1946.
90 NARA RG 59, 54D328, E. 381, Box 1, memorandum drafted by W. Dowling, Director of European Affairs, to G. Marshall, Secretary of State, 6.5.1947; FO 371/66566/U69/24/73, minutes by Hoyer-Millar, 16.1.1947, P.H. Gore-Booth, Peace-Making Department, 20.1.1947, Beckett, 21.1.1947; memorandum by Garner, 15.1.1947; telegram, no. 919, FO to Washington, 30.1.1947; telegram, no. 920, FO to Washington, 30.1.1947.
91 FO 371/73180/Z1625/317/22, letter, Rome to War Crimes Section, 25.2.1948; FO 371/73181/Z2755/317/22, minute by Kirkpatrick, 10.4.1948; FO 371/73172/Z4162/167/22, despatch, no. 157, Mallet to Bevin, 12.5.1948.
92 FO 371/66566/U69/24/73, P. no. 19, Yugoslav note, 8.1.1947; FO 371/73180/Z2464/317/22, telegram, no. 304, H. Ashley-Clarke, Minister, British embassy Paris, to FO, 22.3.1948; FO 371/73158/Z3043/3/22, memorandum, Brown, 8.4.1948; FO 371/73181/Z27755/317/22, telegram, no. 1078, Bevin to Harvey, 10.4.1948; FO 371/73181/Z4113/317/22, letter, French embassy in London to FO, 14.5.1948; FO 371/73181/Z3535/317/22, 27.4.1948, letter, Mallet to Sforza, 16.4.1948; FO 371/73055/Z2559/273/72, minute by Roberts, 17.3.1948.
93 FO 371/73180/Z2464/317/22, telegram, no. 304, Ashley-Clarke to FO, 22.3.1948; FO 371/73181/Z2755/317/22, 1.4.1948, telegram, no. 360, Harvey to Bevin, 1.4.1948; telegram, no. 1078, Bevin to Harvey, 10.4.1948; FO 371/73181/Z4113/317/22, letter, French embassy in London to FO, 14.5.1948; FO 371/73181/Z3535/317/22, letter, Mallet to Sforza, 16.4.1948.
94 FO 371/57659/U5686/4473/73, minutes by Scott-Fox, 25.5.1946 and Newton, 27.5.1946; FO 371/57659/U7090/4473/73, minutes by Scott-Fox, 29.8.1946 and Cope, 30.8.1946; FO 371/60711/ZM2371/1286/22, telegram, no. 1051, Charles to FO, 6.7.1946; FO 371/60711/ZM2514/1286/22, despatch, no. 369, Charles to Bevin, 18.7.1946; minutes by Ross, 19.7.1946 and 24.7.1946 and Hoyer-Millar, 19.7.1946.
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