The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20070216160701/http://weber.ucsd.edu:80/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanondaw-u.html
Go to previous page, China Resources main page, Jordan's main page.
This page requires Unicode.

The Taoist Canon

Shortcuts: History, Organization, Popular Texts

History of the Taoist Canon

Throughout history the "Taoist Canon," or Dàozàng 道藏 "Vault of the Way," has suffered from:

  1. lack of official status
  2. lack of agreement about the contents across different Taoist sects
  3. the tendency to include ever more works
  4. much overlap among the works making it up, which copied constantly from each other
  5. little coherence in content from one work to another
  6. the inclusion of liturgical and meditational texts that make little sense without orally transmitted exegesis, rarely stable and often lost
  7. lack of adequate indexing
  8. a tradition that regarded the details of Taoist practice as secret, so that different families transmitted different collections of Taoist books, and none wanted to have their versions published

In the XXth century the last two issues were addressed, and Chinese and western scholars have rescued a fairly extensive canon, published it in multiple copies, and indexed it. Although there are several distinct themes, and some tend to be concentrated in certain sections, most themes are found in most sections, and the traditional organization of this vast library is both a blessing (because it represents a kind of standard) and a (somewhat greater) curse (because it inhibits understanding).

We can trace seven different attempts to make order from the chaos, of which the first is perhaps the most influential, even though it is lost:

Canon 1: Organization of the Canon by Lù Xiūjìng 陸修静 (Vth Century).
This general classification of materials is still used, although the original version (and many of the constituent texts) is lost, and additional texts have been added later.

Canon 2: Kāiyuán Bàozàng 開元道藏 "Precious Canon of the Kāiyuán Reign (AD 713-741) [of the Táng dynasty]"
A complete edition of the Taoist Canon made and then lost in the Táng dynasty. The first imperially endorsed edition of the Taoist Canon.

Canon 3: Yúnjí Qīqiān 雲笈七籤 "Seven Bamboo Strips of the Cloudy Satchel"
An famous compendium of Taoist non-ritual texts assembled by Zhāng Jùnfáng 張俊房 in the Northern Sòng dynasty (960-1127), who also sought to compile what he could of the remaining Táng canon, an effort lost during the Sòng. Modern reprints of this are about four volumes long.

Canon 4: Zhèngtŏng Dàozàng 正統道藏 "Taoist Canon of the Zhèngtŏng Reign [1436-1449 of the Míng dynasty]"
An imperially mandated compilation seeking to incorporate all extant Taoist books. This work survived in two copies into the XXth century, when one was found in Paris and one in China. Copies were made in Taiwan and are now found in libraries around the world (including UCSD). Organization generally follows Canon 1.

Canon 5: Wànlì Dàozàng 萬歷道藏 "Taoist Canon of the Wànlì Reign [(1573-1619), of the Míng dynasty]"
A supplement to Canon 5.

Canon 6. Dàozàng Jīnghuá 道藏精華 "The Essential Texts of Taoism"
A work edited in Taiwan and seeking to enlarge Canon 4 by adding post-Míng Taoist texts.

Return to top.

Organization of the Taoist Canon

All editions of the Taoist canon include a wide and miscellaneous range of materials, a mix of philosophy (often with speculations about the perfect political system), instructions for preparing an elixir of immortality by manipulating various chemicals (referred to as "outer alchemy" wàidān 外丹), guides to meditation (referred to as "inner alchemy" or nèidān 内丹), liturgies, charms, and even reprints of the writings of famous non-Taoists. To make matters even more complex, many of the individual works included range over more than one of these topics.

In addition several "schools" of Taoist practitioners are represented by the writings collected in the canon. Each of these felt entitled to use any works used by the others, but each had certain works that were particularly associated with it. The various comprehensive canons all seem to founder on the need to place thematically similar materials together, but also to block materials used by the same school together.

The names of Taoist Schools that come up most commonly are:

Here is a list of the major divisions of the Taoist Canon as they were preserved in several of the editions over the centuries.

Major Groups of Canonical Texts:

  1. Dòngzhēn 洞真 (Cavern of the Realized) (The Shàngqīng School)
    Includes books of the Shàngqīng ("Consummate Purity") School revealed starting in 364 to a certain Yáng Xī 楊犧 (330-386) by apparitions of Wèi Huácún 魏華存, founder of Shàngqīng.
    However also included here are some Língbăo charms and liturgies, as well as the Wuren Pian and the Huáng Dì Yinfu Jīng.

  2. Dòngxuán 洞玄 (Cavern of the Mysterious) (The Língbăo School)
    Includes the Língbăo ("Spiritual Treasure") scriptures, traditionally thought to be originally collected by GĔ Xuán 葛玄, a relative of the IVth century alchemist GĔ Hóng 葛洪. They are a collection of rituals, liturgies, and talismans.
    However, some Shàngqīng texts are also to be found here, including the Huángtíng Nèijīing Yù Jīng.

  3. Dòngshén 洞神 (Cavern of the Spirit) (Putative Writings of Lăo zĭ and Other Sages)
    This section originally included the Sānhuáng Jīng 三皇經 ("Scriptures of the Three Sovereigns"), which contained magic formulas and invocations, claiming to date from the Three Kingdoms period (25-265). They were destroyed in the Táng dynasty (618-907).
    That did not prevent the section name being kept in use. In later canons this section includes the Dàodé Jīng, Zhuāng zĭ, and related materials, as well miscellaneous later texts attributed to Lăo zĭ. (In today's canon this section also includes some Língbăo texts, including the Bĕidŏu Yánshēng Jīng.)

Minor Groups of Canonical Texts:

  1. Tàixuán 太玄 (Great Mystery) (Mostly Meditation)
    Originally included the Dàodé Jīng, Zhuāng Zĭ, and Liè Zĭ. This material was moved to Dòngzhèn group in Táng dynasty. In today's canon this section is largely devoted to texts of Internal Alchemy (meditation), including the Cāntōng Jí and the Huáng Dì Nèi Jīng. The section also includes the Yúnjí Qīqiān (Canon 3). Some works of the External Alchemy (chemical alchemy) are also here.

  2. Tàipíng 太平 (Great Balance) (Mostly charms and rituals)
    Includes the Tàipíng Jīng, as well as some Língbăo charms and rituals.

  3. Tàiqīng 太清 (Great Pure) (Mostly Non-Taoist Writers)
    This section is largely given over in the modern canon to writers who are not normally classified as Taoists, including Mò zĭ, Sūn zĭ, Hánfēi zĭ, &c. Also here (perhaps to deny its assertion of authorship by Lăozĭ) is the Tàishàng Gănyīng Piàn, and the Baopu Zĭ.

  4. Zhèngyī 正一 ((Orthodox Unity) also written Zhèngyĭ 正乙) (Mostly Liturgy of the Celestial Masters Sect)
    Includes the Zhèngyĭ Mengwei Lù (Registers of the Classic Orthodox Practice), used by the Celestial Masters Sect (Tiānshī Dào 天師道), as well as rituals and charms associated with Celestial Master Taoism. A few Shàngqīng scriptures are also placed here.

Return to top.

Major Taoist Texts

The following texts are probably the most read of the material that is found in the Taoist Canon. In all cases they circulate quite separately, and their inclusion in one or another of the canonical collections is because of their popularity, not the cause of it.

Dàodé Jīng 道德經 "The Scripture of the Way and its Efficacy"
The most famous Taoist text, probably dating from some time in the Warring States period (475-221 BC), although some scholars place it earlier, usually in the Spring & Autumn period (770-476) of the Eastern Zhōu 周 dynasty (770-256). The work appears to contain proverbs and other brief sayings from many much earlier sources, and it is traditionally attributed to "the old sage(s)" or lăo zĭ 老子, which was probably the earliest title of the book itself. Unfortunately for clarity, the term "old sage(s)" was soon (mis)understood as the title of a single person (which is why it is now spelled Lăozĭ). Lăozĭ is in turn considered to have the proper name of Lĭ Ĕr 李耳, to be a native of the ancient state of Chŭ 楚 (near modern HB and HN) during the Eastern Zhōu, and to have met Confucius (who did not impress him), and to be the miracle-working founder of Taoism. An alternative name for him was Lăo Dān 老聃.
In the XXth century earlier texts were found that include some additional material and also suggest a different ordering of the chapters and the probable title Dédào Jīng 德道經. (The definitive translation of the new text is by Robert Henricks.)
The Dàodé Jīng text is frustratingly ambiguous, and this has led to its Rorschach-like interest both for Chinese (who have produced thousands of commentaries on it) and for Western readers, who, even if they do not know much Chinese, are keen to produce idiosyncratic and imaginative translations, sometimes with little to justify them.
The Dàodé Jīng is best known in the Anglophone world under the older spellings "Tao-tê Ching" and "Tao-te-ching," and the name of the putative author is usually spelled "Lao Tzu" or "Lao-Tzu."
On-line Translations:
James Legge http://www.sacred-texts.com/tao/taote.htm
Douglas Allchin http://my.pclink.com/0E/D1/allchin/tao/contents.htm
Chad Hansen http://www.hku.hk/philodep/courses/EWEthics/ttc.htm S. Mitchell http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/taote-v3.html
Stan Rosenthal http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/gthursby/taoism/ttcstan3.htm

Bàopú Zĭ 抱朴子 "The Sage Who Embraces Simplicity"
A work by Gĕ Hóng 葛洪(ca A.D. 268-334), one of the most important Neo-Taoist writers.

Cāntōng Qì 参通契 "The Triplex Unity"
A work by Wèi Bóyáng 魏伯陽 of late Hàn times, whose interest was in finding the elixir of immortality, using insights gained from the trigrams of the Yì Jīng 易經.

Fēngshén Yănyì 封神演義 "Investiture of the Gods"
A Míng dynasty novel recounting how the gods came to have their places in the pantheon. An enormously popular work, this novel is at once a summation of popular stories and a stimulus to their representation in other media, such as traveling theatricals. Although not included in the Taoist Canon, to my knowledge, this work is arguably the most important influence on popular understanding of Taoism as a religious system.

Hán Fēi Zĭ 韓非子 "Master Hán Fēi"
A philosopher (and his book) dating to about the IIIrd century BC, concerned with government, but influenced by Taoism, but especially associated with Legalism, a school of statesmanship advocating universal application of unbending law. He served in more than one small state, including Qín 秦, under the monarch who was to become the first emperor of a unified China. A rival named Yáo Jià 姚賈 is said to have become envious of him and to have arranged his arrest. He committed suicide in prison about 230 BC.

Huáinán Zĭ 淮南子 "Masters of Huáinán"
A work of the early Hàn dynasty (206 BC - AD 24). Liú Ān 劉安, grandson of the founding Hàn emperor, was the king of a domain called Huáinán, where he was the patron of scholars and artists, including, tradition tells us, a group of eight Taoist miracle-workers, whose discussions constitute the "Masters of Huáinán" text, which includes a mix of observations on government and on nature, but which explicitly supernaturalizes Taoist ideas. It came to be a canonical text of importance in religious Taoism. After Liú Ān's death, the political correctness of Confucian orthodoxy came to prevail in Huáinán, memories of the Masters of Huáinán were lost to history, and their text became politically insignificant.
In later times the name came to be thought of as singular, and Huáinán zĭ, misunderstood to mean "the sage named Huáinán," was credited with the invention of bean curd and regarded as the patron god of bean curd sellers.

Huáng Dì Nèi Jīng 黃帝内經 "The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal [Medicine]"
A major meditational guide.

Huángtíng Nèijīing Yù Jīng. 黃庭内經玉經 "Yellow Court Jade Classic of Internal [Images]"
A text associated with Shàngqīng 上清 Taoism.

Lăo Zĭ 老子 See Dàodé Jīng.

Liè Zĭ 列子 "Master Liè"
A philosopher (and his book) dating from the Warring States period (period 04e). The philosopher is named Liè Yùkòu 列御寇 (or Liè Yŭkòu 列圄寇). Although the book is well known and widely studied, scholars suspect that it is the product of many different authors. Many passages are quotations from other works (often lost). Liè Zĭ, at least as seen through this text, is an advocate of "naturalness" (zìrán 自然), which means going with the flow with little conscious striving. The book includes a mass of anecdotes, like much of the Zhuāng Zĭ 莊子 text.

Shén-Xiān Zhuàn 神仙傳 "Tales of Gods and Immortals"
A collection of traditional tales of the pantheon, including many tales of perilous adventures and magical feats.

Tàipíng Jīng 太平經 "Scripture of the Great Balance"
This work includes the earliest texts on formulas for making the elixir of immortality, an activity referred to as making the wàidān 外丹 or "External Alchemy." However it is largely a discussion of what a perfect kingdom might be like, complete with charms designed to help keep away disasters.

Tàishàng Gănyīng Piàn 太上感應篇 "Treatise on Actions and their Retributions"
A popular morality tract, putatively (but not really) authored by Lăo zĭ. In the last few centuries this work has been a great favorite among people who would print it and distribute copies gratis in temples and other public places in order to elevate the level of public morality.

Wén Zĭ 文子 "The Literary Masters"
A compilation of Taoist teachings probably made about 100 BC. Most of the text claims to be sayings of Lăo zĭ (much as later texts often do), and includes passages, sometimes with commentary, from the Dàodé Jīng, Zhuāng Zĭ, and the Huáinán Zĭ, although it lacks most of the stories that make the latter two texts attractive reading.

Zhuāng Zĭ 莊子 "Master Zhuāng"
A collection of anecdotes and stories and some philosophical commentary. Master Zhuāng was an historical person, living in the Warring States period (475-221 BC). The text is usually regarded as the most important Taoist text after the Dàodé Jīng, and it is appreciated for the much greater intelligibility of the material it contains, and the thought-provoking but sometimes lighthearted anecdotes are among the most widely read texts in Classical Chinese. In Chinese scholarly circles, Lăozĭ and Zhuāng zĭ, taken together, are referred to as simply Lăo-Zhuāng.
The word zhuāng 莊 is both a common surname and a word that means village, by the way, so, although most Chinese understand "Zhuāng zĭ" to mean "a philosopher named Zhuāng," it is possible that the name actually should be understood as "a village sage," just as Lăo zĭ is "an old philosopher."

Return to top.