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2006 Taiwan Yearbook
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The cianggu ceremony in Toucheng 頭城, Yilan County, brings Ghost Month to a dramatic close. Teams of climbers shimmy up five-story-high greasy bamboo poles to a platform of towers laden with food to appease wandering hungry ghosts. Awaiting the first climbers to arrive are sacred good-luck pennants and gold medallions.
The cianggu ceremony in Toucheng 頭城, Yilan County, brings Ghost Month to a dramatic close. Teams of climbers shimmy up five-story-high greasy bamboo poles to a platform of towers laden with food to appease wandering hungry ghosts. Awaiting the first climbers to arrive are sacred good-luck pennants and gold medallions.
What's New
  • Updated information for Islam, Catholicism, and Tantric Buddhism

Article 13 of the Constitution guarantees freedom of religion as a right of all people in Taiwan. Religious adherents can freely congregate, hold religious services, and proselytize, as long as they act within the bounds of the law, public morals, and social systems. In the late 1980s, religious development entered a new phase as Taiwan began to transform itself into a full-fledged democracy. New religions emerged while new sects and groups evolved from existing religions to meet the spiritual needs of Taiwan's people, who were faced with a fast-changing society and increasing pressure in their everyday lives. An increase in new forms of religious activities attracted a greater number of participants. Meditation gained popularity, especially among the middle-class. Many religious groups made adept use of mass media to proselytize, strengthen members' faith, and promote cultural, educational, and humanitarian activities. Religious development in Taiwan has reached an unprecedented state of vitality and prosperity.

To be recognized officially so as to receive tax benefits and other administrative support, religious groups must apply to and register with the Department of Civil Affairs of the Ministry of the Interior (MOI) 內政部民政司 after meeting stipulated requirements, including a minimum number of local believers and organizations and sufficient funds. According to the MOI's statistics, in 2005 there were 26 religions recognized by the government: Daoism (Taoism), Buddhism, Tantric Buddhism, Catholicism, Protestantism, Islam, Syuan Yuan Jiao 軒轅教, Li-ism 理教, Tenrikyo 天理教, Baha'i 巴哈伊教, the Tienti Teachings 天帝教, Tiender 天德教, I-Kuan Tao 一貫道, Mahikari Church 真光教團, Confucianism 儒教, Da Yi Jiao 大易教, Hai Tze Tao 亥子道, the Unification Church 統一教, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 耶穌基督後期聖徒教會, World Maitreya Great Tao 彌勒大道, Jhonghua Sheng Jiao 中華聖教, Universe Maitreya Emperor Jiao 宇宙彌勒皇教, Pre-cosmic Salvationism 先天救教, Huang Chung 黃中, the Church of Scientology 山達基教會, and the Chinese Heritage and Mission Religion 玄門真宗. Statistics collected by the MOI from religious groups indicated that, as of March 2005, about 18.72 million people in Taiwan are members of one or more religious groups. Altogether, 33,138 temples, mosques, and churches serve the spiritual needs of the people in Taiwan.

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Religious Development in Taiwan

Taiwan's religious landscape began to evolve in the 17th century as Han people migrated from the southeastern provinces of China in large numbers. These early settlers brought Buddhism, Daoism and traditional Chinese popular religion to the island where the existing predominant religious practices were those of the aborigines. Around the same time, Christianity was introduced to Taiwan following the arrival of Dutch and Spanish missionaries. Over three hundred years, Taiwan's religious environment has developed a polytheistic and syncretic look.

Although dominated by ancestor worship, Buddhism, and Daoism, Taiwan has never prohibited the introduction or development of other indigenous and foreign religions. Following the Nationalist government's relocation to Taiwan in 1949, Taiwan's religious landscape was further enriched by the introduction of traditional Chinese religions, the expansion of Western faiths' believer base, and the growth of beliefs created in Taiwan. Although each religion may appear to postulate an independent doctrine, some have similar philosophies, practices, and structures of religious services, and some even share the same deities. For example, Guan Yu 關羽, the legendary general in China's Three Kingdoms period around the early third century AD, is worshiped as a deity in both I-Kuan Tao and Daoism. Guan Yin 觀音, the Buddhist Goddess of Mercy, is also worshiped in I-Kuan Tao and Li-ism.

Religious customs, icons, and beliefs permeate all levels of Taiwan's society. Almost all adults in Taiwan, even those not formally subscribing to a religious belief or worshiping regularly at a particular temple, engage in religious practices stemming from one or a number of religious traditions. It is very common in Taiwan to see homes and shops with an illuminated shrine and incense burning to honor a deity, hero, or ancestor. Most families perform ancestor worship; and, on important occasions such as when a son or daughter takes the university entrance examination, parents visit a temple to present petitions and solicit divine assistance. Many drivers in Taiwan decorate their cars with charms, amulets, statuettes, and religious slogans for protection against accidents.

Religious groups have traditionally offered important community services in Taiwan. As of March 2005, religious groups were operating 32 hospitals, 43 clinics, 25 retirement homes, 33 centers for the mentally handicapped, 14 handicapped institutions, 3 rehabilitation centers, 12 orphanages, and 39 nurseries. These groups have established 352 kindergartens, 12 elementary schools, 41 high schools, 6 colleges, 14 universities, and 107 monasteries and seminaries. They have also set up 147 libraries and 59 publishing houses, and have issued 774 publications.


Statistics on Religions in Taiwan
Religion Temples, Mosques & Churches
Members Universities & Colleges Hospitals
Daoism*
18,274
7,600,000
1
3
Buddhism**
4,006
8,086,000
8
3
I-Kuan Tao
3,260
810,000
--
--
Protestantism***
3,609
605,000
7
14
Catholicism
1,151
298,000
4
12
The Tienti Teachings
50
298,000
--
--
Tiender
14
200,000
--
--
Li-ism
138
186,000
--
--
Syuan Yuan Jiao
22
152,700
--
--
Islam
6
58,000
--
--
Tenrikyo
153
35,000
--
--
Baha'i
13
16,000
--
--
Mahikari Church
9
1,000
--
--
Confucianism
139
26,700
--
--
Hai Tze Tao
55
30,000
--
--
Da Yi Jiao
1
1,000
--
--
World Maitreya Great Tao
2,200
250,000
--
--
Jhonghua Sheng Jiao
7
3,200
--
--
Universe Maitreya Emperor Jiao
12
35,000
--
--
Pre-cosmic Salvationism
6
1,000
--
--
Huang Chung
1
1,000
--
--
The Church of Scientology
7
20,000
--
--
The Chinese Heritage and Mission Religion
5
5,000
--
--
Total
33,138
18,718,600
20
32
* Number of temples includes 8,753 home shrines.
** Including Tantric Buddhism
*** Figures include those of the Unification Church and the Church of Jesus Christ of
         Latter-day Saints.
Source: Department of Civil Affairs, Ministry of the Interior

Governmental and Private Organizations and Institutions

National Chengchi University 國立政治大學 established a graduate school in religious studies in 2000; it is the only university unaffiliated with a religious group that has set up a graduate program in religion. Other universities that provide either a bachelor's degree or a master's degree in religious studies are affiliated with a Christian or a Buddhist group. These include Aletheia University 真理大學, Chung Yuan Christian University 中原大學, Fo Guang College of Humanities and Social Sciences 佛光人文社會學院, Fu Jen Catholic University 輔仁大學, Hsuan Chuang University 玄奘大學, Nanhua University 南華大學, Tunghai University 東海大學, and Tzu Chi University 慈濟大學.

In addition, the Legislative Yuan approved revisions to the Private Schools Act 私立學校法 in 2004 to help promote the training of clergy and teaching of religious studies. Before its revision, schools established by private funds or religious organizations to provide curricula of religious study or clergy education were not allowed to grant college degrees officially recognized by the Ministry of Education (MOE) 教育部. The revised law allows such schools to grant degrees recognized by the MOE and helps boost students' interest in entering these religious institutions.

On October 2, 2000, the MOI also established a Religious Affairs Counseling Committee 宗教事務諮詢委員會. Committee members currently include six academics, nine Buddhist, nine Daoist, three Catholic, five Protestant, and five I-Kuan Tao representatives, and one each from Islam, Hai Tze Tao, Tiender, Tenrikyo, the Tienti Teachings, and Mahikari Church. The committee also drafted the Act Governing Religious Groups 宗教團體法, which was approved by the Executive Yuan in September 2001 and submitted to the Legislature for consideration. The act is intended to become the "one" law that regulates different types of religious organizations that currently register according to different laws, such as the Civic Organizations Act 人民團體法 and temple regulations.

The Taiwan Association for Religious Studies 臺灣宗教學會, Taiwan's first such academic institution, was established on April 18, 1999, by a group of scholars whose research includes the main religions of Taiwan. The association publishes a newsletter and a journal, and regularly holds seminars.

The Museum of World Religions 世界宗教博物館, located in Yonghe City 永和巿, Taipei County, was opened on November 9, 2001. Although organized by a Buddhist foundation, the museum collects and displays artifacts of many religions. Artifacts from its own extensive collections are exchanged to bring special temporary exhibitions to the museum.

Beginning in July 2000, conscripts who are reluctant to perform mandatory military service for religious reasons can apply to the MOI for substitute service. As of December 2005, a total of 154 religious believers (126 Jehovah's Witnesses, 27 Buddhists, and 1 adherent of I-Kuan Tao) have been accepted for substitute service.

Popular Religion

Burning joss money as an offering to gods and spirits is a common religious practice in Taiwan. The“gold money”(with its printing plate on the left) pictured here is burned to seek peace and blessings.
Burning joss money as an offering to gods and spirits is a common religious practice in Taiwan. The "gold money" (with its printing plate on the left) pictured here is burned to seek peace and blessings.

Taiwan's popular religion has its roots in traditional Chinese religious beliefs that emphasize polytheism and various seasonal customs and festivals. As Han people from China started to move to Taiwan during the 17th century, they brought their religion with them, which spread gradually, evolved into a unique form, and became an essential part of Taiwanese people's lives.

Like other polytheistic beliefs around the world, Taiwan's popular religion has a broad pantheon of gods and goddesses that include deities from Buddhism, Daoism, as well as famous historical figures. It also absorbed the practice of ancestor worship, and doctrines and thoughts from Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism. In popular religion, the universe is divided into three realms 三界: deities; humans and deities sent to protect humans; and spirits and ghosts. The supreme deity is the Heavenly Jade Emperor 玉皇大帝, also called the Lord of Heaven 天公. There are many other deities under him, which manage various affairs in the universe. These include Wang Mu Niang Niang 王母娘娘 (Queen Mother of the West); the Lord of the Earth 土地公; Guan Yin; Wenchang Di 文昌帝 (the Emperor of Prospering Culture); and gods controlling natural phenomena such as thunder, lightning, wind, and fire.

As the paramount ruler over the three realms, the Heavenly Jade Emperor can grant titles to spirits, usually heroic characters when they were alive, elevating them to the status of god or goddess. The most popular example of such a deity in Taiwan is Ma Zu 媽祖. Said to be born on the island of Meizhou 湄洲 off the coast of Fujian 福建 Province around the middle of the tenth century, Ma Zu in her mortal life was called Lin Mo-niang 林默娘. Legend has it that she was of high intelligence as a little girl and was later bestowed by a deity with powers of envisioning the future, curing the ill, and rescuing people imperiled on the sea, including her own father and brothers. After her death, it is said, she continued to save people from shipwrecks, for which fishermen and other seafarers worshiped her.

The enormous popularity of Ma Zu in Taiwan can be seen in many ways: There are more than 400 temples dedicated to her throughout Taiwan; worshipers carry her effigies in processions through cities around Taiwan celebrating her birthday on the 23rd day of the third lunar month; and pilgrims escort her effigy across the Taiwan Strait back to her hometown in Fujian Province.

Another popular deity in Taiwan is Wang Ye 王爺 (the Lord of Pestilence). In Taiwan, Wang Ye is in fact a representation of more than 360 lords with different surnames, and there are almost as many accounts as to their origins. It is generally believed that they were people of great merit who, after death, were tasked by the Heavenly Jade Emperor with protecting mankind from evil spirits and epidemics. The religious practices surrounding each of these celestial lords differ depending on the locality and the time of year. One of the famous rituals related to Wang Ye is Burning Wang Ye's Boat 燒王船, said to drive away pestilence. This ritual is usually held in the spring and autumn in southern Taiwan.

Religions of Indigenous Peoples

The religious practices of Taiwan's indigenous peoples center around their animist beliefs, in which spirits are seen to exist in many forms. These include deities in the natural environment, spirits of dead people, living creatures, and ghosts. These spirits may be benevolent or malicious, and have the ability to influence an individual's or a community's fortunes. It is necessary, therefore, to discern the spirits' will before undertaking important tasks, or in order to find the causes of illnesses, disasters, or social problems.

These deities, ancestral and other spirits, and supernatural forces are known by a variety of terms in the languages of Taiwan's indigenous groups, including rutux, anito, hanito, habon and kawas. These terms relate to belief systems that differ to varying degrees. Broadly speaking, they can be divided into two categories, designated the anito and kawas systems.

In the anito system, spirits exist in all beings and in nature, from where they have the power to affect the community's well being. Groups following this system included the Atayal, Bunun, Saisiyat, Siraya, Tsou, and Yami.

In kawas beliefs, spirits can be embodied in concrete forms with specific character, location and direction. Believers of this system include people of the Amis, Ketagalan, Paiwan, Pinuyumayan, and Rukai.

Since the indigenous people have been largely Christianized by foreign missionaries, ceremonies and festivals are now some of the few occasions that traditional beliefs of indigenous people can be seen in practice. For example, the Paiwan people of southern Taiwan hold a malevaq (five-year festival) to request their ancestors to descend from the mountains, hoping for the spirits' blessings for five abundant harvests.

Daoism (Taoism)

Although "philosophical Daoism" 道家 can be differentiated from "religious Daoism" 道教, the two are related. Philosophical Daoism developed on the basis of the teachings of Lao-tzu 老子, who is believed to have lived in the sixth century BC. He and his disciples emphasized individual freedom, laissez-faire government, human spontaneity, and mystical experience.

Religious Daoism (referred to as Daoism in the following text), which took shape around the first century in China, combines Lao-tzu's philosophical thought with ideas from other philosophical schools that emphasized the attainment of immortality. Jhang Dao-ling 張道陵, a founder of religious Daoism, is revered as the Heavenly Teacher 天師. People who followed Dao 道 (Tao) to foster their "ci" 氣 (chi) and cultivate their moral character to pursue immortality were known as Daoshih 道士 (Daoist priests).

Similar to many other traditional religions from China, Daoism was introduced to Taiwan by early immigrants from southeast China around the 17th century. Among the Daoist sects introduced to Taiwan, the most popular one is Tianshih Jiao 天師教, also called Jheng Yi Jiao 正一教, which is led by the descendants of Jhang Dao-ling. During the Ching dynasty, the status of Jhang Dao-ling rose significantly in Taiwan, and there was even a special altar set up to worship him during rituals. During the Japanese occupation, the development of Daoism ceased as the colonial government tightened its control of religion.

After Taiwan's retrocession to the ROC in 1945, Daoist priests from China began moving to Taiwan in increasing numbers, among them Jhang En-pu 張恩溥, a 63rd-generation leader of Jheng Yi Jiao. The establishment of the Taoism Society of the ROC 中華民國道教總會 in 1966 marked the beginning of a more organized development of Daoism in Taiwan. Not all members of the association were Daoist, however. For example, a government crackdown on I-Kuan Tao groups during the martial law period caused them to seek refuge by joining the association before they became legal in the late 1980s.

In Daoism, rituals held to worship deities, seek blessings, and prevent illnesses and disasters are called "Jiao" 醮. Over time, Daoism in Taiwan has evolved by mixing with elements of popular religion. For example, some deities in the Daoist pantheon are also seen in temples of popular religion, and certain rituals and practices are common to both Daoism and popular religion. Nowadays it is very difficult for ordinary people to differentiate the two. Taiwan's most famous Daoist temple is Sanching Temple 三清宮 in Yilan County 宜蘭縣.

Buddhism

To commemorate the birth of the Sakyamuni Buddha, temples hold a bathing the Buddha ceremony on the eighth day of the fourth lunar month, a day upon which statues of Buddha are ritually washed while monks chant appropriate sutras.
To commemorate the birth of the Sakyamuni Buddha, temples hold a "bathing the Buddha" ceremony on the eighth day of the fourth lunar month, a day upon which statues of Buddha are ritually washed while monks chant appropriate sutras.

Buddhism was introduced to China around the first century and brought to Taiwan in the mid-17th century by migrants from China's coastal provinces of Fujian and Guangdong. The late 17th century began to see the arrival of monks of the school of Chan (Zen) Buddhism 禪宗 from Fujian. With the support of officials, the gentry, and local people, Buddhist temples were erected and became a source of comfort and strength for these early settlers, who had to face great uncertainty in their new lives. Temple construction started in southern Taiwan, especially around Tainan 臺南, and then progressed northward after the Manchus began to rule Taiwan. The oldest temples include Jhusi Temple 竹溪寺 and Mituo Temple 彌陀寺 in the south, and Longshan Temple 龍山寺 and Jiantan Temple 劍潭寺 in the north. By 1764, there were 34 Buddhist temples in Taiwan.

At this time, the most popular school of Buddhist thought in Taiwan was Chan Buddhism, since most of the early settlers came from southern China where Chan Buddhism had been flourishing. Few people in Taiwan paid attention to Buddhist teachings and doctrines, however, and the quality of monastics was not emphasized. Buddhism, to ordinary people, appeared no different from popular religion, serving people's spiritual needs through blessings and protection given by Buddhist deities, especially Guan Yin. Buddhism during this time showed a mixed face; some Buddhist abbots administered temples for worshiping deities of popular religion, such as Ma Zu, while other Buddhist monks provided services such as geomancy and fortune telling.

The Japanese Colonial Period

Various schools of Japanese Buddhism came to Taiwan after the Japanese took control of Taiwan in late 19th century. Through setting up social service organizations, these schools made well-planned efforts to promote Japanese Buddhist beliefs in Taiwan. The Japanese colonial government encouraged and supported such actions, especially as they helped to influence Buddhism and eased anti-Japanese sentiment on the island.

A large-scale rebellion against Japanese rule in 1915 changed Taiwan's religious landscape. Because rebels used a nunnery of the Jhai Jiao 齋教 (a Buddhist sect also known as the Vegetarian Religion, or Lay Buddhism), Silai An 西來庵, as their communications center, the Japanese colonial government thereafter considered religion a threat to its governance and tightened its control on all religions in Taiwan. For their own protection, Taiwan's Buddhist temples joined Japanese Buddhist organizations, or, under Japanese orchestration, formed their own organizations, such as the Taiwan Buddhist Longhua Association 臺灣佛教龍華會, and the Nanying Buddhist Association 南瀛佛教會.

Although not many Taiwanese people converted to Japanese Buddhism, the faith influenced how Taiwan's Buddhism approached organizational development and education. Influenced by Japanese Buddhists' commitment to Buddhist teaching and cultivation of the clergy, Taiwan's Buddhists started to promote Buddhist teaching by publishing magazines and establishing schools. The first Buddhist school, the Buddhist Middle School (present-day Taibei High School 泰北中學), was founded in 1917. Buddhist groups also began to operate social service organizations.

For Taiwanese monks, receiving ordination and precepts from temples in China was a tradition that represented identification with Buddhist orthodoxy. During the Japanese occupation, monks of the two sides of the Taiwan Strait maintained exchanges, and those in Taiwan went to China for ordination and study. After Taiwan's Buddhist education improved, famous temples in Taiwan began to hold ordination ceremonies. Some Buddhist clergy went to Japan to study Japanese Buddhism.

Reinvigoration after 1949

The 1949 relocation of the Nationalist government to Taiwan saw the return of Chinese Buddhism just as Japanese Buddhism was withdrawing from the island. Buddhist clergy moving from China to Taiwan reestablished traditional Chinese schools, renewed stress on moral and disciplinary codes and the ceremony of ordination, emphasized Buddhist education, and began proselytizing. Limitations on people's right to form social organizations before the lifting of martial law in 1987, however, meant that most Buddhist temples in Taiwan became members of the Buddhist Association of the ROC 中國佛教會, which was the authorized national organization of Buddhism. Since 1953, the Buddhist Association of the ROC has helped to organize ordination ceremonies for Buddhist monks, nuns, and lay people.

Since the 1950s, to further elevate the quality of Buddhism in Taiwan, well-respected Buddhist masters and secular Buddhist devotees proselytized Buddhism among the intelligentsia, especially college students. Through Buddhist scholarships, radio programs, study groups and seminars, Buddhist teaching and philosophies attracted substantial numbers of college students. Many students converted to Buddhism, or tonsured to become monks or nuns.

The concept of "Buddhism for this world" 人間佛教, introduced in the 1960s by the late Master Yin Shun 印順法師, had a profound impact on Taiwan's Buddhism as it emphasized that Buddhists should be concerned with social and political issues and should act to help turn the world into a "pure land" 淨土. Master Yin Shun encouraged Buddhists to form assemblies, and supported freedom of speech and publication, as well as equal opportunities for education and wealth. Many Buddhist groups followed his philosophies and carried out his ideals in different ways: building schools as well as cultural and medical institutes, and providing charity or relief to people in need.

Following the end of martial law, Taiwan's social and political transformation in the 1990s injected new vitality into Buddhism. After restrictions on the formation of religious organizations were lifted, the number of Buddhist organizations rose rapidly, reflecting the popularity of Buddhism gained through decades of diligent missionary work. Of the numerous organizations, four are particularly influential: Fo Guang Shan 佛光山 founded by Master Hsing Yun 星雲大師, Dharma Drum Mountain 法鼓山 founded by Master Sheng Yen 聖嚴法師, Chung Tai Mountain 中台山 founded by Master Wei Jyue 惟覺和尚, and Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation 佛教慈濟慈善事業基金會 founded by Master Cheng Yen 證嚴法師.

Leading Figures

Master Hsing Yun is known for his promotion of Buddhism and his development and management of a Buddhist organization that has branches or affiliated operations around the world. After establishing the Fo Guang Shan center in Kaohsiung in the 1960s, he began to set up Buddhist schools and, over the years, has established an intercontinental network of diversified operations that include temples, associations, publications, libraries, schools, charity services and a cable television station.

The internationally renowned Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation was founded by Master Cheng Yen in 1966 in Hualien 花蓮 and first concentrated its missions in four areas: medicine, culture, charity, and education. From its beginnings, Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation's operations and development were based on Master Cheng Yen's visions and supported by volunteers' contributions. No matter where disasters take place, within or outside of Taiwan, the foundation can always mobilize member volunteers to distribute relief supplies or give medical treatment to victims. Currently, the foundation has over four million members worldwide and has expanded its missionary work into the fields of bone marrow donation, environmental protection, and community volunteerism. Da-Ai Television 大愛電視臺 and Tzu Chi Stem Cell Center 慈濟骨髓幹細胞中心 are two of the well-known establishments under the foundation.

Master Sheng Yen promotes Buddhism through the practice of Chan Buddhism in everyday life. He is the first Taiwanese monk to have been awarded a Ph.D. by Japan's Rissho University. His dedication to popularizing Buddhist thought and Chan practice began with a one-year journey in the US in 1976. In 1989, he set up his missionary base in a village of Taipei County, naming it Dharma Drum Mountain. By proposing "the protection of the spiritual environment" 心靈環保, Master Sheng Yen advocates a fivefold spiritual renaissance, as well as three types of education: education through academics, education through public outreach, and education to reach the goal of uplifting the character of humanity and building a pure land on earth.

Having tonsured at the age of 30, Master Wei Jyue became known to the public after he began to teach Chan Buddhism to a small group of people at his retreat hut in Taipei County. As his teaching drew more attention and followers, Master Wei Jyue built his first missionary base, the Ling Cyuan Temple 靈泉寺, and then the Chung Tai Temple 中台禪寺 in Nantou 南投 County. Master Wei Jyue's teaching emphasizes that, to increase the popularity of the religion, modern Buddhism should be developed to encompass five areas: academic, scientific, educational, artistic, and practical.

Tantric Buddhism

Tantric Buddhism, also known as Vajrayana Buddhism, or Tibetan Buddhism, is an esoteric sect that developed between the second and fourth centuries AD in India. Tantric Buddhism was introduced to Tibet in the eighth century AD and developed four major schools: Nyingma 寧瑪 (also called the red school), Kagyu 噶舉 (the white school), Sakya 薩迦 (the variegated school), and Gelug 格魯 (the yellow school). The Gelug school became the leading sect in Tibet, also attracting followers in Mongolia from the mid-17th century onwards.

The earliest Tantric Buddhist masters who moved to Taiwan were Jhangjia (Zhangjia) Khutughtu 章嘉呼圖克圖 (Khutughtu is a Manchurian honorable title for a Living Buddha 活佛) and Kanjurwa Khutughtu 甘珠爾瓦呼圖克圖 of Mongolia. Both followed the Nationalist government to Taiwan in the late 1940s. In 1959, Tibetan Buddhist masters Gelek Rinpoche 格賴仁波切 and Mingyur Rinpoche 明珠仁波切 (Rinpoche is a Tibetan term for "the precious teacher") came to Taiwan and have been teaching in Taiwan ever since.

Other promoters of Tantric Buddhism in Taiwan have included secular devotees who, before moving to Taiwan, had been taught by Mongolian or Tibetan monks. Famous figures include Master Cyu Ying-guang 屈映光, Master Wu Run-jiang 吳潤江, Master Shen Shu-wen 申書文, and Master Liou Ruei-jhih 劉銳之.

Tantric Buddhism has become increasingly popular in Taiwan since 1980. Exiled Tibetan monks of the Tantric sect have come to Taiwan and set up teaching centers, rapidly attracting large followings, and thereby having a significant effect on Taiwan's religious culture. The most significant events for Tantric Buddhism in Taiwan were the two visits by the Dalai Lama in 1997 and 2001. These visits opened a new chapter in relations between Taiwan and the Tibetan government-in-exile. In 1998, the Tibet Religious Foundation of His Holiness the Dalai Lama 財團法人達賴喇嘛西藏宗教基金會 was formally established. Although religious in name, the foundation serves as a de facto Tibetan representative office in Taiwan.

A Living Buddha (a highly achieved Tibetan monk or a monastery leader) can be reincarnated after nirvana and his reincarnation can be one or many persons, appearing in China or abroad. In 1987, a four-year-old Tibetan child in Taiwan was confirmed as the reincarnation of a Living Buddha and was revered as Bhumang Rinpoche 菩曼仁波切. He was the first Taiwan-born Living Buddha. Taiwan's second reincarnated Living Buddha, Palme Khyentse Rinpoche 巴麥欽哲仁波切, was confirmed in 2005. Unlike Bhumang Rinpoche, an ethnic Tibetan, the 38-year-old Buddhist master was born into a Han family in Lugang 鹿港 and has a Chinese name, Huang Ying-jie 黃英傑.

There are about 226 registered Tantric Buddhist groups in Taiwan, with a total of more than 600,000 members.

I-Kuan Tao

The term I-Kuan Tao can be roughly translated as "Religion of One Unity." I-Kuan Tao evolved from Sian Tian Dao 先天道, which was founded by Huang De-huei 黃德輝 in the 17th century in China. It gained in popularity in the early 20th century due to vigorous promotion by its leaders Jhang Tian-ran 張天然 and Sun Huei-ming 孫慧明. After World War II, followers of I-Kuan Tao moved across the strait to promote their beliefs in Taiwan. I-Kuan Tao quickly attracted a substantial following due to its compatibility with popular religion.

I-Kuan Tao's rapid expansion in Taiwan was curbed after 1950, as the government alleged that I-Kuan Tao was involved in illegal activities and banned its public functions. Some research shows that the government's crackdown on I-Kuan Tao was politically motivated; to the government, which relied on martial law to maintain social stability at that time, I-Kuan Tao's ability to draw large crowds and its incorporation of secretive teachings from various clandestine religious sects made it a potential threat to social order. Therefore, I-Kuan Tao was forced to develop underground and use believers' home shrines as nodes for communication and expansion. It was only after the abolition of martial law that I-Kuan Tao was allowed to register as a religion.

I-Kuan Tao considers that Dao (Tao, "the Way") underlies the doctrines of Daoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam, with Dao being passed on to saints and religious leaders, including those of the aforementioned five religions as well as I-Kuan Tao. I-Kuan Tao followers believe in one god above all other gods, called Ming Ming Shang Di 明明上帝 (the God of Clarity), and worship several figures including Lao-tzu, Confucius, Sakyamuni Buddha, Jesus Christ, Mohammad, as well as deities of popular religion and important figures of I-Kuan Tao. Adherents follow many rituals of Confucianism, and usually hold services at family shrines. Personal sublimation and a life of service are key tenets in the I-Kuan Tao moral philosophy, with adherents devoting a great deal of their resources to social work and charities and establishing many cultural and education units to promote traditional teachings, especially those of Confucianism. Over half of the vegetarian restaurants in Taiwan are run by I-Kuan Tao followers since I-Kuan Tao advocates a vegetarian diet. I-Kuan Tao's missionary work has spread worldwide, and has been particularly successful in Southeast Asia.

Christianity

Christianity first came to Taiwan following the arrival of the Dutch East India Company in southern Taiwan in 1624 and after the Spanish came to northern Taiwan in 1626. Based in Tainan, Dutch merchants used Taiwan as a colonial trading center for goods shipped between Asia and Europe, while missionaries actively converted aborigines into their Protestant faith near Tainan. The expansion of Catholicism in Taiwan was checked for a time by the Dutch defeat of the Spanish and the subsequent expulsion of Dominican missionaries from Danshuei 淡水 and Keelung 基隆. The Dutch, including their missionaries, were themselves driven out of Taiwan in 1662 by Ming loyalist and general Jheng Cheng-gong 鄭成功, who brought his forces to Taiwan during his war of resistance against the Manchus.

Early Development

Christianity reemerged with the Dominicans' return to southern Taiwan in 1859. In Kaohsiung, Rev. Fernando Sainz established the Holy Rosary Cathedral (Minor Basilica). Christianity started to take root in Taiwan and gradually expanded northward.

Presbyterian missionaries began their work in Taiwan in the 1860s. By providing education and medical treatment, the Presbyterian missionaries gradually familiarized the local people with Christianity. In 1865, for example, Dr. James L. Maxwell set up Taiwan's first Western-style medical clinic on Kansi Street 看西街 (present-day Ren-ai Road 仁愛路) in Tainan. In 1879, Rev. George L. MacKay established a hospital in Danshuei. Although he only had basic medical training, MacKay was respected by local people for his expertise in pulling teeth and treating malaria. After MacKay passed away, people established MacKay Memorial Hospital 馬偕紀念醫院 in Taipei in his honor. To cultivate Taiwanese missionaries, MacKay founded Oxford College 牛津學堂 in Danshuei in 1882 and enrolled 18 students. In 1884, he established Taiwan's first modern all-girls' school, the Danshuei Girls' School 淡水女學堂. In 1885, the Presbyterian Church established Taiwan's first Western-style middle school in Tainan (known today as Chang Jung Senior High School 長榮中學). During the Japanese occupation, these Christian schools became sanctuaries of learning for Taiwanese students, who were not allowed to study in most of the schools on the island.

In the early years of the Japanese occupation, the colonial government adopted a laissez-faire policy toward Christian churches. Japanese Protestant denominations also established their own churches in Taiwan, but most members of these churches were Japanese. Greater control over religion was exercised in Taiwan after the Sino-Japanese War began in 1937. During World War II, the colonial government put Western Catholic missionaries under strict surveillance and forbade missionary work among the local people.

After 1949

Christianity developed in new directions after World War II. When the Nationalist government relocated to Taiwan in 1949, many Christian clergy and believers, both Protestant and Catholic, followed. This move provided the clerical manpower needed to promote the faith. Moreover, during a time of postwar poverty and under military threat from China, Taiwan was in need of assistance to survive. By providing various types of social services, such as distributing relief supplies, Catholic and Protestant Christianity were able to promote their beliefs among the people of Taiwan. These factors might explain why Christianity grew rapidly during the 1950s and 1960s, with the number of Catholic believers growing from 27,000 to 300,000 between 1953 and 1963, and the number of Christian denominations from 3 in 1945 to approximately 40 in 1955.

Following this postwar heyday, however, Christianity entered a period of sluggish development. The number of Catholics has remained around 300,000, and the growth rate of Protestantism has not increased. Some observers theorize that the increasing popularity of traditional religions and the growth of new religious sects have made the Christian churches' effort to attract new believers difficult. Compared to traditional religions, which either have philosophies originating from traditional culture or have absorbed traditional culture into their philosophies, Christianity is a "foreign" religion whose doctrines sometimes conflict with local traditions and customs. This incompatibility shows, for example, in the debate over the acceptability of ancestor worship among Christian churches. Understanding that such incompatibility has become an obstacle to their expansion, Catholicism and some Protestant denominations have begun to "localize" their practices, adjusting their attitudes towards and adapting their doctrines more to local traditions and customs.

Catholic Church

A censer bearer leads a procession during a Catholic ceremony.
A censer bearer leads a procession during a Catholic ceremony.

Catholicism has a much greater penetration among Taiwan's indigenous peoples owing to its missionaries' early start in converting aborigines and offering them continuous help.

When Catholicism was first introduced to Taiwan, all matters of the Catholic Church in Taiwan had been overseen predominantly by Western missionaries. As Taiwan was returned to the ROC, Rev. Tu Min-jheng 涂敏正, a Taiwanese priest, was given the reins to manage Catholic Church affairs in Taiwan. Soon afterwards, seven dioceses were formed: the Taipei archdiocese, and the Hsinchu 新竹, Taichung 臺中, Chiayi 嘉義, Tainan, Kaohsiung, and Hualien dioceses. The Chinese Regional Bishops' Conference 天主教臺灣地區主教團, the highest managing body of Catholic affairs in Taiwan, was established in Taipei in 1967. The conference is currently composed of seven incumbent bishops and presided over by Archbishop Joseph Cheng 鄭再發, of the archdiocese of Taipei. As of March 2006, there were 15 bishops, 726 priests, and 1,067 nuns serving 300,000 Catholics in Taiwan.

Protestant Churches

Protestant Christianity has more than fifty denominations in Taiwan and about 600,000 believers. With a 141-year history that can be traced back to British missionaries arriving in Taiwan, the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan (PCT) 臺灣基督長老教會 has 220,000 members, the largest number among all Christian denominations in Taiwan. The PCT is well known for its overt expression of social and political concerns by holding public activities, especially those it organized before martial law was lifted. Although the PCT conducts most church services in Holo Taiwanese, it is trying to expand the size of its Mandarin-speaking congregations and has established a Mandarin-speaking church in Danshuei.

In addition to Christian denominations originating from Western countries, Protestant churches in Taiwan also include "independent churches," sometimes called "local churches." Such churches were either founded in China before 1949 by Chinese Christians, which include the True Jesus Church 真耶穌教會 and the Little Flock 召會(教會聚會所), or established in Taiwan after 1949, which include the Mandarin Church 國語禮拜堂 and the Bread of Life Christian Church 靈糧堂.

Islam

The Muslim community has expanded in recent years with the arrival of guest workers and students from Indonesia and other Muslim nations.
The Muslim community has expanded in recent years with the arrival of guest workers and students from Indonesia and other Muslim nations.

Islam first came to Taiwan about 300 years ago, with migrants arriving from Quanzhou 泉州 in China's Fujian Province. For hundreds of years, Quanzhou was China's largest seaport, bringing together international traders from many parts of the world, including Muslims from the Middle East. Muslims who migrated to Taiwan, many of whom were soldiers or businessmen, mostly settled in Danshuei in the north, or Lugang, Taisi 台西, and other places on the west coast of southern Taiwan. The early existence of Islam in Taiwan can be proved by researching the origin of family names and archaeological findings. For example, several hundred families surnamed "Guo" 郭 in Lugang claim the Muslim village Baiqi 白奇 in Hui-an County 惠安縣 of Fujian Province as their ancestral home, and the Daoist Bao-an Temple 保安宮 (the Safekeeping Temple) in Lugang was originally a mosque that was built in 1725.

Over the years, some descendants of the early Muslim settlers in Taiwan gradually converted to other religions, while others maintained contact with Muslims in China until Japanese colonial rule began. The Japanese government's tight control over religion severed Muslim ties across the Taiwan Strait and further reduced the size of the Muslim community on the island. The second wave of Muslim immigration took place after World War II. First were those who came to Taiwan for business, followed by those who arrived with the Nationalist government when it relocated to Taiwan.

During the 1960s and 1970s, the government brought to Taiwan a group of Nationalist soldiers who had continued to fight the Chinese Communist armies from bases in Myanmar after 1949. Many of these soldiers were Muslims, and their descendants arrived later during the 1980s. In recent years, the Muslim community has further expanded with the arrival of Indonesian guest workers and foreign students studying in Taiwan. The size of the floating Muslim population is estimated at between 80,000 and 100,000.

Since their relocation to Taiwan after 1949, Muslims in Taiwan have formed several organizations to help resolve issues resulting from special needs in customs and religious practice. Among these organizations, the Chinese Muslim Association (CMA) 中國回教協會 is the most active one. Established in China, the CMA plays an important role in Taiwan's public diplomacy with Muslim countries. The CMA is located at the Taipei Grand Mosque, which was built in 1960 and is now a religious heritage site. Currently, the CMA is composed of the Taipei Grand Mosque and four other mosques outside Taipei. Other important Muslim organizations include the Chinese Muslim Youth League 中國回教青年會, the Islamic Cultural and Education Foundation 中國回教文化教育基金會, and the Chinese Muslim Education Foundation 中華回族教育基金會.

To increase contact with local non-Muslim communities and to ensure that their heritage is passed on to younger generations, Muslim organizations in Taiwan have adopted a more proactive approach to promoting Islamic culture in recent years. For example, students can learn to appreciate Islamic art and culture during an extracurricular educational trip to the Taipei Grand Mosque. Weekend seminars as well as workshops during summer and winter school holidays are held to educate young Muslims and interested non-Muslims alike. In 2004, Muslim World League and National Chengchi University co-hosted the International Seminar on Islam in Taipei, which brought together more than 200 scholars and leaders of Muslim communities from Japan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Sudan, the United States and other nations. Formal exchanges between Muslim communities in China and Taiwan started in 2004 with members of the Islamic Association of China and Taiwan's CMA visiting each other in 2004 and 2005. Taiwan's Muslim community also actively engages in international exchanges by attending regional and global Muslim conferences, sending young Muslims overseas to receive formal Islamic education, and participating in international charity activities.

Six mosques serve Muslims around Taiwan. Two mosques are in Taipei, the Taipei Grand Mosque and the Taipei Cultural Mosque, while Longgang 龍崗, Taichung, Tainan and Kaohsiung each have one. The number of Muslims traveling to and through Taiwan has increased, so Taiwan's two major international airports, Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport and Kaohsiung International Airport, now also provide prayer rooms for Muslims.

Other Independent Religions

There are several other independent religions in Taiwan that generally fall into one of the following four categories: religions brought to Taiwan from China; religions brought in from other countries; religions developed from existing ones; and new religions created in Taiwan.

Religions from China

From this category, the most influential religions are Li-ism and Tiender. Founded by Yang Lai-ru 楊來如 in the 17th century, Li-ism (the Doctrine of Order) is a synthesis of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism given a new dimension by the worship of Guan Yin. Though Li-ists worship Guan Yin, they do not reject deities of other religions. They believe that providence may be revealed in the form of other deities and prophets. Li-ists abide by the great law of Li-ism known as the Precious and Official Decrees 法寶牒文, which were written by Yang.

Some Li-ist clergy came to Taiwan from China in 1949. The Association of Li-ism 中華理教總會 was officially reestablished in Taiwan in 1950 with its headquarters in Taipei. Today, Li-ism has spread to Korea, the United States, Hong Kong, Japan, and the Philippines.

Tiender was founded in 1923 by a young shaman, Siao Chang-ming 蕭昌明, and was introduced into Taiwan in 1953. Tiender is a synthesis of Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam. Its adherents practice various methods of self-cultivation, health preservation, and psychic healing, such as tapping acupuncture points to cure ailments. Under the guidance of their masters, believers learn to meditate in order to search for their original being, which is free and untainted by worldly ties and yearnings.

Religions from Elsewhere

The religions in this category have comparatively few believers in Taiwan and include religious groups such as Baha'i, Judaism, and Tenrikyo.

An Iranian husband-and-wife team established Taiwan's first Baha'i center in Tainan in 1954. The religion's primary headquarters, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Taiwan 財團法人巴哈伊教臺灣總靈體會, is located in Taipei.

Baha'i communities all over the world target urgent social issues in each region. Since 1990, the Baha'i community has launched joint projects with government organizations to promote environmental education.

Taiwan's small Jewish community consists of expatriates (mainly Americans, but also Israelis and Europeans) who are either long-term residents or posted to Taiwan on assignments by multinational corporations, academic institutions, or international organizations. Most of the community's activities are held in a community center maintained in the Tianmu 天母 area of Taipei. Dr. Ephraim F. Einhorn, the only rabbi in Taiwan, has been conducting services in Taiwan for more than 25 years. A small room in a five-star hotel in Taipei is used regularly as the synagogue for Shabbat services.

Tenrikyo was founded in Japan in 1838 by a woman farmer, Miki Nakayama. The religion was first introduced into Taiwan during the Japanese occupation. Since its doctrines stress respect for ancestors, filial piety, self-cultivation, and service to mankind, which resemble traditional Chinese ethics and the concept of universal brotherhood, the religion was readily accepted in Taiwan.

New Extensions

A large number of new religions in Taiwan were developed on the basis of previously existing ones. The main representative of this group is the Tienti Teachings, which was founded by Li Yu-jie 李玉階 in the mid-1980s after he split with Tiender. The doctrines of this new religion emphasize the cultivation of one's moral self, and it has "Twenty Words of Truth" 二十字真言 that serve as "required daily homework" for its followers. Believers are especially concerned about nuclear war.

Religions Founded in Taiwan

Few religions fall into this category. One example is Syuan Yuan Jiao 軒轅教, which was formally founded in Taiwan in 1957 by 82-year-old legislator Wang Han-sheng 王寒生. Syuan Yuan Jiao is aimed at raising people's sense of nationalism and at uniting philosophical thoughts from different ages, including Confucianism, Daoism, and Mohism 墨家. Syuan Yuan Jiao's main creed is respect for heaven and ancestors. Adherents abide by the principles set forth in the scriptures, the Huang Di Jing 黃帝經.


Related Websites
ico-narrow1Department of Civil Affairs of the Ministry of the
  Interior:
http://www.moi.gov.tw/dca
ico-narrow1Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation: http://www.tzuchi.org
ico-narrow1Dharma Drum Mountain: http://www.dharmadrum.org
ico-narrow1Chinese Regional Bishops' Conference: http://www.catholic.org.tw
ico-narrow1Taipei Grand Mosque: http://www.taipeimosque.org.tw
ico-narrow1Museum of World Religions: http://www.mwr.org.tw
ico-narrow1Taiwan Association for Religious Studies: http://www.tars.org.tw

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