by Cees R. van Staal

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The Canadian Appalachians comprise a complex collage of Early Paleozoic peri-Laurentian and peri-Gondwanan oceanic suprasubduction zone and ribbon-shaped microcontinental terranes. The suprasubduction-zone terranes represent infant arc, extensional arc and back-arc settings, whereas the microcontinents were rifted off from the Laurentian (Dashwoods) and Gondwanan (Ganderia, Avalonia, and Meguma) margins.

Sequential accretion of the oceanic and continental terranes to one another and eventually to Laurentia during closure of the Iapetus and Rheic oceans caused several collisional events between the Late Cambrian and Permian. Three distinct Late Cambrian to Late Ordovician accretionary events of peri-Laurentian infant arc and continental arc terranes to Laurentia caused the Taconic Orogeny. The latter was terminated with Late Ordovician arrival of the peri- Gondwanan Popelogan-Victoria arc.

Early Ordovician collision between the Penobscot arc and Ganderia as a result of closing the intervening back-arc basin in the periphery of Gondwana caused the Penobscot Orogeny. accretion of Ganderia to Laurentia during the Silurian by closing the Tetagouche-Exploits back-arc basin caused the Salinic Orogeny. The Early Devonian Acadian Orogeny was caused by closure of the seaway between composite Laurentia and Avalonia. Accretion of Meguma to Laurentia caused the Middle Devonian to Early Carboniferous Neoacadian Orogeny. Orogenesis was terminated by the Alleghenian Laurentia-Gondwana collision, forming the Pangea supercontinent.

The Appalachian Orogen is rich in volcanic hosted massive sulphide deposits (VHMS) and, to a much less extent, sediment-hosted massive sulphide deposits. Most of the host rocks to the sulphide deposits formed in extensional suprasubduction- zone settings, which are generally sites of enhanced heatflow and hydrothermal circulation. VHMS deposits mainly formed between ca. 515 and 460 Ma, during intraoceanic subduction related to the closure of the main Iapetan oceanic tract that separated the peri-Laurentian and peri-Gondwanan arc terranes. The latter terranes sutured during the Late Ordovician terminal Taconic Orogeny along the Red Indian Line. After closure of the main Iapetan tract, convergence (Salinic) continued through closure of the Tetagouche-Exploits back-arc basin situated behind the Popelogan- Victoria arc and the oceanic seaway that separated Avalonia from Ganderia (Acadian). Both the Salinic and Acadian orogenies were accompanied by important gold mineralization in the central portion of the Appalachian Orogen (central mobile belt). At least some of the gold may be associated with magmatism generated during slab breakoff.

The Rheic Ocean opened during the Early Ordovician due to Avalonia’s progressive separation from Gondwana. The subsequent departure and drift of theMeguma microcontinent across the Rheic Ocean caused its Neoacadian accretion to Laurentia at ca. 395 Ma. Meguma’s accretion was accomplished by tectonic wedging and shortly, followed by extensive Middle Devonian granite plutonism that formed during continuous flat slab subduction. This tectonic setting probably was responsible for Meguma’s extensive gold mineralization.

The Canadian Appalachians stretch from the northernmost tip of Newfoundland through Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick into southern Quebec (Fig. 1).

The metallogeny and its relationships to tectonic evolution of the Canadian Appalachians is the topic of this paper. New data acquired during the last fifteen years or so of tectonic research in the Canadian Appalachians indicate that its tectonic evolution was much more complex than previously thought (e.g. van Staal et al., 1998). Hence the tectonic architecture and evolution of the Canadian Appalachians will be discussed first in some detail, because it has important implications for understanding the tectonic setting of the mineral deposits. This is followed by a description of the metallogeny organized according to the tectono-stratigraphic subdivisions (architecture) and orogenic history. The section concerning the tectonic architecture and evolution is summarized from van Staal (2006) and van Staal et al. (2006).

The Iapetus Ocean started to open during the late Neoproterozoic and had achieved a significant width during the Early Cambrian (Johnson et al., 1991; Trench et al., 1992;MacNiocaill et al., 1994; Cawood et al., 2001; Hodych et al., 2004).

The closure of Iapetus, including related seaways and marginal basins, was largely responsible for the formation of the Canadian Appalachians and terminated with the docking of the Avalonian microcontinent (see below). The subsequent closure of the Rheic Ocean caused accretion of Meguma and terminated with assembly of Gondwana and Laurentia into the Pangea supercontinent (van Staal, 2005). The latter was accompanied by large-scale Alleghenian- Variscan tectonic events during the Carboniferous-Permian. With the exceptions of localized deformation and plutonism associated with major strike-slip fault zones, the Canadian Appalachians largely escaped the penetrative effects of the Alleghenian terminal orogenic events and hence, these will not be discussed herein.

The Canadian Appalachians, based on the Early Paleozoic and older geology, have been subdivided into tectono-stratigraphic zones and subzones (Williams, 1979, 1995; Williams et al., 1988;Williams and Grant, 1998). From west to east, these are the Humber, Dunnage, Gander,Avalon, and Meguma zones (Fig. 1). The Humber Zone represents the leading edge of Laurentia’s margin. The Gander,Avalon, and Meguma zones, represent peri-Gondwanan microcontinents (Ganderia, Avalonia, and Megum,a respectively) that were sequentially accreted to Laurentia during the Middle Paleozoic (450-380 Ma). The Dunnage Zone mainly contains accreted arc terranes that formed within the Iapetus Ocean. The Dunnage Zone has been subdivided into the peri- Laurentian Notre Dame and peri-Gondwanan Exploits subzones (Williams et al., 1988).

Humber Zone

The Canadian Humber Zone (Fig. 1) represents the most western part of the Canadian Appalachians and is mainly underlain by Late Neoproterozoic to Ordovician rocks deposited on Grenvillian crystalline basement as a result of rifting and passive margin development. Grenvillian basement is mainly exposed in western Newfoundland in a series of structural inliers (Fig. 1). Small bodies of Grenvillian basement occur also in Quebec and northwestern Cape Breton Island (Miller and Barr, 2000).

The western boundary of the Humber Zone is the Appalachian structural front. The eastern limit of the Humber Zone is represented by the Baie Verte-Brompton Line (BBL, Williams and St. Julien, 1982).

Rift-related activity in the Canadian segment of east Laurentia occurred between 615 and 540 Ma (e.g. Kamo et al., 1989). It resulted mainly in mafic magmatism and siliciclastic sediments being deposited in fault-bounded grabens. Paleomagnetic data indicate that Iapetus must have opened by at least 570 Ma at the end of the first phase of rifting (Cawood et al., 2001). Another phase of late Neoproterozoic rift-related magmatism (565-550 Ma) took place after this event and was followed shortly by deposition of a Lower Cambrian transgressive sequence (Figs. 2, 3), generally interpreted to represent a rift-drift transition (Williams and Hiscott, 1987; Lavoie et al., 2003). Waldron and van Staal (2001) related this event to the separation of a ribbon-shaped microcontinent from Laurentia, which they named Dashwoods. Dashwoods became the foundation of the continental, Early to Middle Ordovician phases of the Notre Dame arc (Whalen et al., 1997a; van Staal et al., 1998; 2006). Sparse faunal and paleomagnetic data suggests that Dashwoods remained close to Laurentia (Johnson et al., 1991; Nowlan and Neuman, 1995) from which it was separated by the Humber seaway (Waldron and van Staal, 2001). Similar lines of evidence suggest that Dashwoods, or an equivalent ribbon continent along strike, is also present in the subsurface of the Dunnage Zone of southern Quebec (Tremblay et al., 1994; Gerbi et al., 2006).

During the Arenig, the passive Humber margin in Newfoundland and Quebec was converted into a convergent margin as a result of progressive loading by an overriding composite oceanic terrane and a trailing arc terrane. In Newfoundland, the oceanic terrane comprises the ophiolitic Coastal and Bay of Islands complexes (Fig. 2); the trailing arc terrane comprises the Notre Dame and Snooks Arm arcs (van Staal et al., 2006). The closure of the Humber Seaway heralds the main phase of the Taconic Orogeny. Tectonic loading of the margin as a result of obduction created a marine foreland basin. Taconic loading of the outboard part of the passive margin appears to have started slightly later in the Quebec reentrant (Fig. 3) (Malo et al., 2001; Lavoie et al., 2003).

Dunnage Zone

The Dunnage Zone mainly contains the remnants of Cambro-Ordovician infant arc (Stern and Bloomer, 1992) and more mature arc terranes that existed within the Iapetus Ocean. The Dunnage Zone is best preserved in Newfoundland, but important segments are also exposed in New Brunswick and southern Quebec (Fig. 1). Paleomagnetic, fossil, and other geological evidence indicate that these terranes either have a peri-Laurentian provenance (Notre Dame Subzone) or a peri-Gondwanan provenance (Exploits Subzone). This suggests that there were several subduction zones active within Iapetus at the same time (van Staal et al., 1998).

Notre Dame Subzone

The Notre Dame Subzone (Fig. 1) is exposed in Newfoundland and Southern Quebec. It lies immediately to the east of the Baie Verte-Brompton Line, which is its tectonic boundary with the adjacent Humber Zone. Its eastern boundary with the Exploits Subzone is represented by the Red Indian Line, a major suture that juxtaposes rocks formed on opposite sides of the Iapetus Ocean (Figs. 2, 4). The Red Indian Line is well exposed in Newfoundland (Williams et al., 1988), but is hidden beneath Middle Paleozoic cover sequences of the Gaspé belt in northernmost New Brunswick near the border with Quebec (Fig 1, see below).

The Notre Dame Subzone in Newfoundland comprises three distinct Cambrian to Middle Ordovician (507-462 Ma) oceanic terranes and a continental magmatic arc (the Notre Dame arc) built on Dashwoods (Waldron et al., 2001). The oldest oceanic rocks occur in the Middle to Upper Cambrian (510-501 Ma) Lushs Bight oceanic tract (LBOT) (Elliott et al., 1991; Szybinski, 1995; Swinden et al., 1997), which primarily includes the Lushs Bight, Western Arm, Cutwell, Moreton’s Harbour, and Sleepy Cove groups and several gabbroic to trondhjemitic intrusions (Fig. 2). The Cambrian Coastal Complex (CC) of Karson and Dewey (1978) (Fig. 1; Cawood and Suhr, 1992) and the ophiolitic St. Anthony Complex (Jamieson, 1988; G. Dunning, pers. comm., 2004), which occur as obducted sheets in the Humber Zone of central and northern Newfoundland, respectively, are coeval and probably correlatives of the LBOT (Fig. 2). The ca. 504 Ma suprasubduction-zone Mt. Orford ophiolite in southern Quebec (David and Marquis, 1994; Huot et al., 2002) may also be equivalent (Figs. 1, 3).

The LBOT is characterized by an ophiolitic association of pillow basalts, sheeted dykes, gabbro, and rare ultramafic rocks (Kean et al., 1995). An abundance of boninite and primitive island arc tholeiite (Swinden, 1996; Swinden et al., 1997) combined with the presence of consanguineous juvenile granitoids (Williams and Payne, 1975; Fryer et al., 1992) suggest that this tract represents an infant arc terrane formed during subduction initiation at ca. 510 Ma (van Staal et al., 1998). Paleomagnetic data (Johnson et al., 1991) and low εNd values suggest the LBOT formed near the Laurentian margin (Swinden et al., 1997). Field relationships and isotopic evidence suggest that the LBOT and its correlatives in the southern and central parts of the Notre Dame Subzone (e.g. Long Range mafic-ultramafic complex (Hall and van Staal, 1999)) were deformed and emplaced onto Dashwoods (Fig. 5) between 500 and 490 Ma (Szybinski, 1995; Swinden et al., 1997; van Staal et al., 1998, 2006; Waldron and van Staal, 2001) shortly after their formation (Fig. 2). After obduction of most of the LBOT onto Dashwoods, a new suprasubduction zone oceanic tract was formed during stepping back of the east-dipping subduction zone into the Humber Seaway (Fig. 5). The remnants of this oceanic tract have been preserved mainly as a narrow faultbounded wedge along the Baie Verte Brompton Line (Fig. 1) and are referred to as the Baie Verte oceanic tract (BVOT).

The ophiolitic component of the BVOT is significantly younger than its counterpart in the LBOT and has yielded two identical ages of ca. 490 Ma (Dunning and Krogh, 1985; Cawood et al., 1996). The BVOT ophiolites became basement to the oceanic Snooks Arm arc-back-arc complex (Bédard et al., 2000) during the Tremadoc and early Arenig at 487 to 476 Ma (Williams, 1992; Ramezani et al., 2002), coeval with the first phase of the continental Notre Dame arc (Fig. 2). The Notre Dame and Snooks Arm arcs probably formed part of a once continuous arc system, possibly like the present day Sunda (continental) and Banda (oceanic) arcs in Indonesia. The bulk of the southern Quebec ophiolite belt and oceanic elements of the second oceanic arc of Tremblay (1992) in southern Quebec (Sherbrooke arc, Fig. 3) probably correlate with the ophiolitic foundation of the BVOT and its Snooks Arm arc suprastructure. The BVOT was emplaced diachronously onto the Humber margin during the Early Ordovician with collision beginning along first and second order promontories in the margin. Syn-collisional spreading in reentrants, due to rollback and/or transtension, during obduction of the BVOT (Cawood and Suhr, 1992; Schroetter et al., 2003) may have been responsible for the generation of anomalously young suprasubduction zone ophiolites such as the Bay of Islands, Thetford Mines, and Mt. Albert complexes (Figs. 2, 3, also see below).

The continental Notre Dame magmatic arc in Newfoundland existed intermittently from ca. 488 to 435 Ma and is represented by three major magmatic pulses separated by two significant gaps, which coincide with collisional events (Fig. 2; van Staal et al., 2006). Arc magmatism was followed by a 433 to 429Ma mixed arc/non-arc-like bimodal suite related to slab-breakoff (Whalen et al., 1996, 2006; van Staal et al., 2003a, 2004a). Equivalents of the Notre Dame arc are poorly preserved in Quebec, probably because a large part is buried beneath the Siluro-Devonian cover sequences of the Gaspé belt (Fig. 1). The Middle Ordovician-Early Silurian volcanic and plutonic rocks of the Ascot-Weedon continental arc complex (Tremblay, 1992; David and Marquis, 1994) and Pointe aux Trembles Formation (David and Gariepy, 1990) are correlatives of the second and third phase of the Notre Dame arc. The undated gabbro-diorite sills and tuffaceous rocks in the Middle-Upper Ordovician Magog Group (Tremblay et al., 1995) probably also form part of the Notre Dame arc (Fig. 3).

The Arenig-Llanvirn (480-462 Ma) Annieopsquotch accretionary tract (AAT) (van Staal et al., 1998; Lissenberg et al., 2005b; Zagorevski et al., 2006a) is the youngest oceanic terrane in Newfoundland. The AAT is sandwiched between the Lloyd’s River-Hungry Mountain-Lobster Cove fault system and the Red Indian Line (Fig. 2; Colman-Sadd et al., 1992a; van Staal et al., 1998; Lissenberg and van Staal, 2002). The AAT comprises a tectonic collage of 480 to 473 Ma infant arc ophiolite (e.g. Annieopsquotch ophiolite belt, Lissenberg et al., 2005a), arc and back-arc terranes (e.g. Buchan-Robert Arm belt, Swinden et al., 1997; Zagorevski et al., 2006a) that formed as a result of west-directed subduction of Iapetus outboard of Dashwoods. The AAT is not exposed in southern Quebec.

Exploits Subzone

The Exploits Subzone is exposed in central Newfoundland, between the Red Indian Line and the GRUB Line-Day Cove fault system (Figs. 1, 4). The oldest Paleozoic volcanic rocks are Lower Cambrian to Tremadoc (514-486 Ma) and represent the remnants of a peri- Gondwanan arc/back-arc complex (Colman-Sadd et al., 1992b; Jenner and Swinden, 1993), named the Penobscot complex by van Staal et al. (1998). The Cambrian arc elements of the Penobscot complex occur mainly in the ensialic Victoria Lake Supergroup (Dunning et al., 1991; Rogers et al., 2006), which also includes a fault-bounded belt of Late Neoproterozoic (565 Ma) arc plutonic and volcanic rocks (Evans et al., 1990). Zircon inheritance of the latter in the Lower Cambrian volcanic rocks suggests a basement-cover relationship. Ensialic arc activity continued intermittently until at least 486 Ma (O’Brien et al., 1997; Zagorevski et al., 2004). The arc elements of the Penobscot complex are solely preserved in the western half of the Exploits Subzone in Newfoundland (Fig. 1), comprising both ensialic and ensimatic segments (Figs. 1, 4). Related back-arc ophiolitic rocks (GRUB, Coy Pond, and Pipestone Pond complexes) are Upper Cambrian (ca. 494 Ma) (Dunning and Krogh, 1985; Jenner Swinden, 1993) and restricted to the eastern half of the Exploits Subzone. They are localized along the faulted boundary with the Middle Cambrian-Tremadoc arenites and shales of the Gander Zone (e.g. Currie, 1992), which were deposited on the leading edge of the Gondwanan Gander margin (van Staal, 1994).

Correlative volcanic rocks of the Penobscot arc/back-arc complex also occur in New Brunswick in the 497 to 493 Ma Annidale belt (Fig. 1; McLeod et al., 1992) and the adjacent New River Belt (Johnson et al., 1996). Neoproterozoic basement also occurs in the Exploits Subzone of northern New Brunswick (Figs. 1, 6; van Staal et al., 1996).

During the Arenig-Caradoc, arc volcanism recommences in the western half of the Exploits Subzone, whereas the eastern half is dominated by deposition of volcanogenic sandstones and shales with minor felsic and rare mafic volcanic rocks (Fig. 4, Valverde-Vaquero et al., 2006). A lithological contrast between these two parts of the Exploits Subzone persists into the Late Silurian. The boundary between the western and eastern halfs of the Exploits Subzone is the Dog Bay Line (Williams et al., 1993), which is an Early to Late Silurian suture formed after closing a wide back-arc basin, named the Exploits basin in Newfoundland and the Tetagouche basin in New Brunswick (van Staal, 1994). The western half of this back-arc basin represents the remnants of its active side (Popelogan- Victoria arc), the eastern half the passive side (Davidsville margin). The Popelogan-Victoria arc is represented by the post-Tremadoc parts of the Victoria Lake Supergroup, and Wild Bight and Exploits groups in Newfoundland, and the Balmoral Group and Bathurst Supergroup in New Brunswick (van Staal et al., 1998, 2003b). The Davidsville margin comprises the Davidsville, Baie d’Espoir, Bay du Nord, and Harbour le Cou groups in Newfoundland (Valverde-Vaquero et al., 2006), and the Meductic and post- Tremadoc part of the Cookson Group in New Brunswick (van Staal et al., 2003b).

Gander Zone

The Gander Zone (Figs. 1, 4, 6) comprises a distinct sequence of Lower Cambrian to Tremadoc (~520-480 Ma) arenites, siltstones, and/or and shales, generally considered to represent the outboard part of a passive margin (Gander margin, van Staal, 1994). The Gander margin rocks can be traced from northeast Newfoundland into New Brunswick. Its rocks are known by various names: Gander Group and Spruce Brook Formation in eastern and central Newfoundland, and Miramichi, Woodstock, and Cookson groups in northern, eastern, and southern New Brunswick, respectively. The Gander Zone in Newfoundland and New Brunswick is separated from the adjacent Avalon Zone by the Dover- Hermitage Bay- Caledonia Fault system (Figs. 1, 6). Detrital zircons suggest that all three lithological units in New Brunswick’s Gander Zone have an identical provenance and are approximately coeval (van Staal et al., 2004b). The detrital zircon data, combined with field relationships and sparce fossils, indicate a dominantly Middle Cambrian to Tremadoc age; the Tremadoc part of the sequence mainly represented by dark grey or black shales (van Staal and Fyffe, 1995; van Staal et al., 2003b). Field relationships and detrital zircon and titanite data indicate a similar age range in Newfoundland (O’Neill, 1991; Colman-Sadd et al., 1992b).

The Neoproterozoic rocks of the Hermitage flexure in southern Newfoundland (O’Brien et al., 1996) are generally inferred to represent basement to the Paleozoic sedimentary rocks of the Gander Zone (Dunning and O’Brien, 1989; O’Brien et al., 1993), although a basement-cover relationship has not been recognized. Such a relationship may be preserved in southern New Brunswick. Here quartz-rich arenite and conglomerate of the Matthews Lake Formation with a detrital zircon content similar to that of the Miramichi, Woodstock, and Cookson groups, disconformably overlie Cambrian and Neoproterozoic igneous rocks of the New River Belt (Johnson and McLeod, 1996). This line of evidence supports isotopic and geological arguments that the Gander and Avalon zones represent two separate peri-Gondwanan basement blocks (van Staal et al., 1996; Samson et al., 2000; Barr et al., 2002), respectively, named Ganderia and Avalonia (van Staal et al., 1998). Because their Neoproterozoic evolution is rather similar, Ganderia and Avalonia are mainly distinguished on basis of their distinctly different Early Paleozoic tectonic histories (Figs. 4, 6).

Avalon Zone

The Avalon Zone (Fig. 1) mainly comprises a distinctive belt of Neoproterozoic, largely juvenile, arc-related, volcano- sedimentary sequences and associated plutonic rocks, which underwent a long-lived tectonic history, including orogenesis before deposition of a Cambrian-Ordovician shale-rich platformal sedimentary succession (Figs 4, 6) (Kerr et al., 1995; Landing, 1996; O’Brien et al., 1996). The Avalon Zone in Canada comprises eastern Newfoundland, and the Mira and Caledonia terranes of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, respectively (Barr and Kerr, 1997; Barr et al., 1998).

Middle Cambrian to Middle Ordovician rift-related volcanic rocks are presumably mainly related to Avalonia’s rifting and departure from Gondwana. Meguma Zone The Meguma Zone is the most outboard terrane in the Canadian Appalachians and is exposed on land in southern Nova Scotia (Fig. 1). However, its regional extent is much larger and continues offshore (Hutchinson et al., 1988; Keen et al., 1991; Pe-Piperand Jansa, 1999).

The oldest exposed part of the Meguma Zone comprises a thick (<10 km) Cambrian to Early Ordovician turbiditic sandstone-shale sequence of the Goldenville Group (Fig. 6), which was largely deposited on the continental rise and/or slope to outer shelf of a Gondwanan passive margin. The Goldenville Group is overlain by the Lower Ordovician Halifax Group, which represents a shoaling succession (Schenk, 1997). Together, the Goldenville and Halifax groups constitute the Meguma Supergroup. The Meguma Supergroup is disconformably overlain by the Upper Ordovician to Early Devonian, dominantly shallow marine shelf siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of the Annapolis Supergroup. Rift-related bimodal volcanic rocks of the Late Ordovician-Lower Silurian (~442-438 Ma) White Rock Group occur at the base of the Annapolis Supergroup (Schenk, 1997; Keppie and Krogh, 2000; MacDonald et al., 2002). These rift-related volcanic rocks may be related to the onset of rifting and departure of Meguma from Gondwana. The top of the Annapolis Supergroup comprises the Lower Devonian (Lochkovian to Emsian) Torbrook Group, which in turn is unconformably overlain by Triassic red beds.

Middle Paleozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks have been grouped into belts following the nomenclature of Williams (1995). They were deposited in synorogenic basins and hence, impose important constraints on the tectonic setting of the Canadian Appalachians during the Middle Paleozoic.

Gaspé, Cape Ray, and Badger Belts

The Late Ordovician-Early Devonian Gaspé belt (GAB) underlies most of northern and central New Brunswick and adjacent Quebec (Chaleurs Bay, Matapedia, and Gaspé). The Ordovician structures associated with the Red Indian Line in Maritime Canada are buried beneath it (Fig. 1).

The Upper Ordovician-Upper Silurian rocks of the GAB are mainly represented by fore-arc siliciclastic turbidites grading upwards into more calcareous rocks to be finally replaced by Wenlock-Ludlow red beds, basalt, and rhyolite (Fig. 6; van Staal and de Roo, 1995; Walker and McCutcheon, 1995; Wilson et al., 2004), immediately prior to Late Silurian Salinic tectonism. Correlative rocks in Newfoundland occur in the Cape Ray and Badger belts (Chorlton et al., 1995; Williams et al., 1995; Dubé et al., 1996). All three belts contain marine sedimentary rocks and Lower to Upper Silurian terrestrial rocks, which have been interpreted as a late Early Silurian overstep sequence (Chandler et al., 1987) that links all tectono-stratigraphic zones and subzones west of the Dog Bay Line in Newfoundland and its equivalent in New Brunswick (Bamford Brook Fault, Fig. 1).

Fredericton and Indian Island Belts

The Fredericton belt is exposed in central New Brunswick (Figs. 1, 6). It comprises a thick sequence of Llandovery to Ludlow marine, locally slightly calcareous turbidites that nowhere are interlayered with volcanic rocks. They are in part coeval with the terrestrial rocks in the Gaspé, Cape Ray, and Badger belts.

Deposition of the Fredericton belt is also coeval with formation of the east-facing Brunswick subduction complex preserved in the Miramichi Highlands (van Staal, 1994; van Staal et al., 2003b). Detritus of the Brunswick subduction complex occurs in the turbidites of the Fredericton belt, providing a tectonic linkage. The Fredericton belt turbidites became strongly deformed, locally with marked easterly overturned structures (Park and Whitehead, 2003), before the end of the Silurian (West et al., 1992, 2003; Tucker et al., 2001). The Fredericton belt has been interpreted as a foredeep basin formed during Early to Late Silurian loading of the passive, Davidsville margin by the overriding Brunswick subduction complex (van Staal and de Roo, 1995), from which the latter is separated by the Bamford Brook Fault in New Brunswick (Figs. 1). The Fredericton belt has been correlated (van Staal, 2005) with lithologically similar rocks in the Indian Islands belt in northeastern and central Newfoundland (Fig. 4), immediately east of the Dog Bay Line (Williams et al., 1993).

Kingston, Mascarene, and La Poile Belts

The Kingston and adjacent Mascarene belts in southern New Brunswick (Figs. 1, 6) comprise tectonically-related sequences of Ashgill-Pridolian volcanic and sedimentary rocks (e.g. Fyffe et al., 1999), which are geologically and geophysically linked to Ganderia (Samson et al., 2000; Johnson, 2001; McLeod et al., 2001; King and Barr, 2004; van Staal et al., 2004b). The volcanic rocks are predominantly Llandovery in age (442-435 Ma) (Barr et al., 2002; Miller and fyffe, 2002). The Lower Silurian volcanic rocks have compositions indicative of arc and back-arc settings (Johnson and McLeod, 1996; Barr et al., 2002).

Elements of the Kingston, and Mascarene belts continue into Cape Breton Island (e.g. Barr and Jamieson, 1991; Price et al., 1999; Barr et al., 2002) and can also be traced into Newfoundland. The Silurian volcanic and sedimentary rocks of the La Poile belt (O’Brien et al., 1991) and associated arc intrusive rocks (e.g. ca. 430 Ma Burgeo granite, Kerr et al., 1995) along Newfoundland’s south coast occupy a similar tectonic position to the Kingston and Mascarene belts (Figs. 1, 4).

The Kingston, Mascarene, and La Poile belts were strongly shortened during the latest Silurian-Early Devonian Acadian Orogeny; the start of Acadian Orogeny being defined by inversion of the Mascarene and La Poile basins, which started during the latest Silurian around 422 Ma (O’Brien et al., 1991; Fyffe et al., 1999; van Staal, 2005).

Arisaig Belt

The Arisaig belt in western Nova Scotia (Figs. 1, 6) is one of the few occurrences of pre-Acadian Siluro-Devonian rocks deposited on Avalonia and exposed on land (Murphy and Keppie, 1995). Here Silurian-Early Devonian (Lochkovian, Boucot et al., 1974), dominantly platformal siliciclastic sediments disconformably overlie Middle Ordovician volcanic rocks of the Dunn Point Formation (Hamilton and Murphy, 2004), which themselves unconformably overlie Cambrian-Lower Ordovician sedimentary rocks. Subsidence analysis suggests a passive margin setting during the Llandovery and Ludlow. The Pridolian- Lochkovian rocks at the top of the Arisaig belt, on the other hand, record a significant increase in subsidence rate, indicative of tectonic loading and foreland basin formation (Waldron et al., 1996). This tectonic loading coincides with initiation of the Acadian Orogeny and the time of Avalonia’s accretion to Laurentia. Hence, Avalonia was the lower plate during its collision with Laurentia, which is in accord with the presence of Silurian arc/back-arc volcanic rocks on the southern margin of Ganderia (Kingston, Mascarene, and La Poile belts), which at this time represented Laurentia’s leading edge. This also agrees with seismic interpretations (van der Velden et al., 2004).

The orogenic history of theAppalachian Orogen (500-250 Ma) was complex. Orogenesis started in the Cambrian and continued into the Permian. The orogenic classification used herein is based on grouping of tectonic events that are temporally, spatially and kinematically related.

Taconic Orogeny

The Taconic Orogeny is due to accretionary events in the peri-Laurentian realm between the Late Cambrian and Late Ordovician (500-450 Ma). It comprises three events called Taconic 1, 2 and 3 (Figs. 2, 3; van Staal et al., 2006).

Taconic 1 represents obduction of the suprasubduction zone oceanic lithosphere of the LBOT on the Dashwoods microcontinent in Newfoundland (see above) between 500 and 493 Ma (Fig. 5). Following obduction of the LBOT onto Dashwoods in Newfoundland, subduction stepped back into the Humber Seaway at ca. 490 Ma, behind the now composite Dashwoods-LBOT lithosphere. This new subduction zone is responsible for the upper Cambrian-Tremadoc volcanic and plutonic rocks of the ensialic Notre Dame arc, the suprasubduction-zone oceanic lithosphere of the BVOT, and the SnooksArm arc (Fig. 5). The ophiolitic component of the BVOT is compositionally similar to the LBOT (Swinden et al., 1997; Bédard et al., 1998) and is for identical reasons interpreted to have formed during subduction initiation. Obduction of Humber seaway oceanic lithosphere onto the Humber margin and accretion of the trailing Dashwoods microcontinent caused Taconic 2. Taconic 2-related orogenesis produced high-grade metamorphism and polyphase deformation in large parts of the Notre Dame Subzone during the Middle Ordovician (Fig. 7; van Staal et al., 2006).

Deceleration of convergence between the Humber margin and Dashwoods as a result of the onset of collision at promontories transfered convergence to the Iapetus Ocean immediately outboard (east) of Dashwoods at ca. 481 Ma by forming a new, west-dipping subduction zone in Iapetus (Fig. 7; Lissenberg et al., 2005a; van Staal et al., 2006). The new subduction zone generated the Arenig (480-473 Ma) Annieopsquotch infant arc ophiolite belt (AOB) and subsequently the Llanvirn (465-460 Ma) Red Indian Lake arc in Newfoundland (Zagorevski et al., 2006a). These arc terranes were accreted to Dashwoods between 470 and 455 Ma forming the Annieopsquotch Accretionary tract (AAT, Lissenberg et al., 2005b). The main Iapetan tract that was situated between the AAT and the peri-Gondwanan Popelogan- Victoria arc (PVA, Figs. 2, 4, 6) was now being rapidly closed by two outwardly-dipping subduction zones (Figs. 7, 8). This convergence terminated in a Moluccan Sea-style arc-arc collision in the late Caradoc (455-450 Ma), sutured along the Red Indian Line (van Staal et al., 1998). This collision terminated the Taconic Orogeny and only left subductable Iapetan oceanic lithosphere in the Tetagouche- Exploits back-arc basin and the narrow seaway between Ganderia and Avalonia (Figs. 6, 8; van Staal, 1994, 2005).

Penobscot Orogeny

The Early Ordovician Penobscot Orogeny is, in part, coeval with the early phases of Taconic orogenesis in the peri-Laurentian realm (Figs. 2, 4). However, it is restricted to Ganderian rocks (Neuman, 1967; Colman-Sadd et al., 1992b), which at that time were situated in the periphery of Gondwana at high southerly latitudes (Liss et al., 1994; van Staal et al., 1996, 1998) on the opposite side of the Iapetus Ocean.

The Penobscot Orogeny mainly involves Tremadoc and/or earliestArenig obduction of Upper Cambrian (ca. 494 Ma) back-arc ophiolites (Figs. 1, 4; Coy Pond and Pipestone Pond complexes (Jenner and Swinden, 1993)) onto the Gander margin (Colman-Sadd et al., 1992b; van Staal, 1994). The ophiolites formed in a back-arc setting with respect to the Cambrian-Tremadoc volcanic rocks of the Penobscot arc (lower parts of the Victoria Lake Supergroup, Wild Bight and Exploits groups (Fig. 4)) that lie immediately east of the Red Indian Line (Fig. 1). The Penobscot arc/back arc complex formed above an east-dipping subduction zone (Rogers et al., 2006; Zagorevski et al., 2006b).

Salinic Orogeny

The Salinic Orogeny is a predominantly Silurian orogenic event (Dunning et al., 1990) that is distinct from the Early Devonian Acadian Orogeny in Newfoundland and New England (van Staal, 2005). The prelude to Salinic orogenesis starts in the Ashgill after the Caradoc arc-arc collision that terminated the Taconic Orogeny (see above). Sinistraloblique convergence between Ganderia and composite Laurentia continued and was accommodated by stepping back of the west-dipping subduction zone into the Tetagouche-Exploits back-arc basin (Figs. 1, 4, 8; van Staal et al., 1998). The Tetagouche-Exploits back-arc comprised a complex mosaic of small oceanic basins separated by extended continental ridges, similar to the modern Sea of Japan (van Staal et al., 2003b; Valverde-Vaquero et al., 2006). Magmatic rocks related to this phase of subduction are represented by the third, ca. 445 to 435 Ma phase of the Notre Dame arc (Figs. 2, 4, 8).

Lower Silurian sediments on both sides of the subduction zone remained distinct (Figs. 4, 8) and had different source areas (Williams et al., 1993; Pollock et al., 2003) until the Wenlock (ca. 425 Ma) in Newfoundland, when the basin closed along the Dog Bay Line (Fig. 4; Williams et al., 1993). Cross-cutting plutons indicate that the marine foredeep sequences of the Fredericton belt immediately southeast of the Salinic suture in New Brunswick and adjacent Maine were deformed between 425 and 422 Ma (West et al., 1992; Tucker et al., 2001). An inferred angular unconformity, between the strongly folded, steeply dipping Lower Silurian Botwood Group and the overlying, gently-dipping ca. 423 Ma Stony Lake volcanics (Anderson and Williams, 1970; Dunning et al., 1990) west of the Dog Bay Line, indicates that the terminal phase of the Salinic Orogeny was approximately coeval in Newfoundland. The deep crustal architecture of the Salinic Orogen and the remnants of its west-dipping subduction channel have been imaged on reprocessed seismic lines in Newfoundland (van der Velden et al., 2004). Deformation and metamorphism were particularly intense in the Gander Zone; however, orogenesis also affected Laurentia’s hinterland (Cawood et al., 1994; Castonguay and Tremblay, 2003).

Acadian Orogeny

The Acadian Orogeny is due to the collision between Laurentia andAvalonia (e.g. Bird et al., 1970; Bradley, 1983; van Staal, 2005). The Gander-Avalon terrane boundary lies along the Hermitage Bay-Dover Fault in Newfoundland and Caledonia Fault in southern New Brunswick (Figs. 1, 4, 8) (Barr et al., 2003; van Staal et al., 2004b).

Syn- to late tectonic, collision-related Late Silurian-Early Devonian (420-400 Ma) granitoids and associated highgrade metamorphism, pervasive in the leading edge of eastern Laurentia (Ganderia, Figs. 4, 5; e.g. Dunning et al., 1990; Burgess et al., 1995; Schofield and D’Lemos, 2000; Valverde et al., 2000; Valverde-Vaquero et al., 2003), represent a minimum age for the Acadian Orogeny because they are coeval with or postdate cleavage development and dextral shear in the Avalonia-Ganderia boundary zone (Dallmeyer and Nance, 1994; Holdsworth, 1994). The best time constraints are given by the Late Silurian (ca. 422 Ma) inversion of the Mascarene and La Poile basins (O’Brien et al., 1991; McLaughlin et al., 2003). The Mascarene belt is interpreted to represent a back-arc basin to the Lower Silurian arc rocks in the adjacent Kingston belt (Fyffe et al., 1999; Barr et al., 2002). Hence, subduction was to the northwest beneath Laurentia’s leading edge (Ganderia) and Avalonia was situated on the lower plate (Fig. 8).

Neoacadian Orogeny

The Neoacadian Orogeny comprises Middle Devonian to Early Carboniferous deformation and metamorphism (Robinson et al., 1998). These tectonic events are related to the docking and orogenesis of the Meguma terrane in Canada (Culshaw and Reynolds, 1997; Hicks et al., 1999; Keppie et al., 2002; van Staal, 2005). Meguma’s accretion was dextral oblique and accommodated by the Cobequid- Chedabucto fault system on land in Nova Scotia (Fig. 1). Van Staal (2006) proposed that Meguma was situated on a shallowly dipping downgoing plate (Murphy et al., 1999) and transferred to the overriding Laurentian plate as a result of wedging. This model also explains the absence of Devonian arc magmatism in the Laurentian upper plate.

Rocks of the Canadian Appalachians are host to a large variety of mineral deposits, ranging from syngenetic volcanic- hosted massive and stockwork sulphide (VMS) deposits to chromite, PGE, gold, pluton-associated mineralization and industrial minerals (mainly asbestos, talc, and building stone). Herein mainly Mississippi Valley-type, VMS, and the various types of mesothermal and epithermal gold mineralization specific to each of the various tectonostratigraphic zones and synorogenic belts will be described. Their tectonic setting will be discussed in light of new ideas concerning Appalachian tectonic evolution. For example, mesothermal and epithermal gold mineralization mainly formed during post-Ordovician orogenic events in the tectonically active core of the orogen (central mobile belt) as a result of the Silurian-Devonian accretion of the peri- Gondwanan microcontinents to Laurentia. Mineralization is commonly associated with major, accretion-related faults and/or reactivated older faults west of the Red Indian Line (Fig. 1).

The other types of mineral occurrences in the Canadian Appalachians are discussed in other contributions within this project. Extensive, relevant descriptions can also be found in Swinden and Dunsworth (1995).

Humber Zone Placer and Mississipi Valley-Type Mineralization

Mineral deposits in the Humber Zone (excluding pre- Appalachian mineral deposits occurring in exposed Grenvillian basement) can be divided into those that occur in Neoproterozoic-Cambrian rift-related sedimentary and volcanic rocks, and those that occur in the overlying dominantly calcareous rocks of the passive margin phase.

Rift-Related Rocks

Mineral deposits in the rift-related sandstones include marine Fe-Ti-Zr paleoplacer deposits that accumulated along the beaches and shoals of the Humber margin. They occur principally in Quebec (e.g. Ware deposit, Fig. 9) and are commonly associated with late Neoproterozoic rift-related volcanic rocks, which may have been an important source of the heavy minerals. Titaniferous magnetite, ilmenite, titanite, rutile, zircon, monazite, and tourmaline are the principal heavy minerals found in the deposits.

The rift-related sedimentary and volcanic rocks in southern Quebec are locally also host to important Cu mineralization (Fig. 10). Chalcopyrite and bornite are the principal ore minerals. The Harvey Hill deposit in southern Quebec has been mined and has yielded 400,000 tonnes of ore grading 1.2% Cu and 3.6 g/t Ag. Various syngenetic to epigenetic or hybrid models have been proposed to explain this mineralization.

Passive Margin-Related Rocks

The Cambrian-Ordovician shelf carbonate-dominated successions of the Humber margin are host to important Zn±Pb±Ba mineralization, both in Newfoundland and southern Quebec (Figs. 2, 3). The mineral deposits are generally considered to have formed by Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) metal-bearing brines generated and expelled during the Early to Late Ordovician Taconic Orogeny as a result of the emplacement of large thrust sheets onto the Humber margin (Figs. 2, 3, 7). In Newfoundland, Zn±Pb mineral deposits are commonly hosted in strata that experienced extensive dolomitization, karstification, and brittle fracturing. They principally occur in fractures, stylolites, or veinlets in Cambrian dolostone and as disseminated to semi-massive bodies in pseudobreccias and open spaces in dolomitized Ordovician limestone. The largest and best known deposit is the Daniel’s Harbour mine (Fig. 9), which was mined between 1975 and 1990 and contained 6.6 million tonnes of ore grading 7.9% Zn (Swinden and Dunsworth, 1995). Another important occurrence is the Round Pond deposit west of Hare Bay (Fig. 9) with 400,000 tonnes grading 2% Zn.

In Quebec, the stratabound Upton Ba-Zn-Pb deposit (Fig. 9) with 960,000 tonnes of ore grading 46.5% Ba, 1.94% Zn, 0.59% Pb, 0.15% Cu, and 13.5 g/t Ag is the best known Mississippi Valley-type occurrence (Paradis et al., 2004). The deposit is hosted by Lower Ordovician crinoidal limestone and the sulphides occur in disseminations and aggregates filling fractures and open spaces, along stylolites and barite and calcite grain boundaries. Basinal metal-bearing brines migrated through the margin strata during Taconic loading and sulphides were deposited when the fluids encountered H2S-rich traps in the carbonate host rock (Paradis et al., 2004). The Saint-Fabien deposit is an important MVT occurrence (Beaudoin et al., 1989). Here the mineralization mainly occurs as stratabound barite-sphaleritegalena veins and as disseminations in cavities in partially dolomitized limestone conglomerates and sandstones of the Upper Cambrian Saint-Damase Formation (Lavoie et al., 2003).

Notre Dame Subzone VMS Deposits

The Lower to Middle Cambrian (510-501 Ma) ensimatic rocks of the Lushs Bight oceanic tract (LBOT) are the oldest known rocks in the Notre Dame Subzone (Figs.1, 2, 10). They mainly represent the upper crustal remnants (basalts and sheeted dykes) of an obducted ophiolitic infant arc terrane that was emplaced on the Dashwoods microcontinent during the Late Cambrian, and where the latter was absent, directly onto the Humber margin during the Early Ordovician. The LBOT is host to numerous economically significant syngenetic Cu±Zn±Au VMS deposits (Fig. 10), which are commonly spatially associated with occurrences of boninitic lavas and/or dykes. In the Lushs Bight type area of northern Newfoundland, the Little Bay (>3 M tonnes of 0.8-2.5% Cu),Whalesback (3.8 M tonnes of ~1% Cu), Little Deer (~75,000 tonnes of 1.3% Cu), Swatridge, Colchester, McNeilly and Miles Cove deposits have been mined in the past (Swinden et al., 1995).

The only known potential equivalent of the LBOT in southern Quebec is the ca. 504 Ma Mt. Orford ophiolite complex (Figs. 1, 3, 10) (David and Marquis, 1994; Huot et al., 2002), which is host to four mined Cu±Zn±Au VMS deposits: the Huntington (11 M tonnes of 0.9% Cu, 0.062 g/t Au, and 0.62 g/t Ag with unmined reserves of 800,000 tonnes of 0.88% Cu), Bolton, Ferrier, and Ives mines (Swinden and Dunsworth, 1995).

The Baie Verte oceanic tract (BVOT) in Newfoundland is a significantly younger Early Ordovician (ca. 490-476 Ma) belt of ophiolitic infant arc rocks with a cover consisting of arc/back-arc volcanic rocks (Snooks Arm arc). The BVOT formed during Early Ordovician closure of the Humber Seaway (Figs. 5, 7) and is mainly preserved as a fault bounded wedge along the Baie Verte-Brompton Line (BBL) between Grand Lake and the Baie Verte peninsula (Fig. 11). The tectonically related Bay of Islands Complex was emplaced as part of a large coherent allochthon (Humber Arm allochthon) onto the Humber margin during the Arenig and occurs to the west of the BBL (Figs. 1, 11). The ophiolitic members of BVOT host numerous economically important Cu±Zn±Au±Ag VMS deposits in Baie Verte Peninsula (Fig. 11), of which Tilt Cove (> 8 M tonnes), Betts Cove (118,000 tonnes of 10% Cu), and Rambler-Ming (4.5 M tonnes) have been mined (Hibbard, 1983). The VMS deposits are commonly associated with boninitic volcanic rocks. The Bay of Island Complex is also host to numerous cupriferous VMS deposits of which the York Harbour mine has yielded 91,000 tonnes of ore with reserves of 200,000 tonnes grading 2.68% Cu, 8.25% Zn, 35 to 70 g/t Ag, and < 1 g/t Au. Gregory River, Steep Rock, and Crabb Brook are related deposits (Swinden et al., 1995).

Several small cupriferous massive sulphide deposits hosted by the boninite and island arc tholeiite lavas of the Sherbrooke domain of the Ascott Complex (Tremblay et al., 1989; Tremblay, 1992) represent examples of BVOT–related VMS mineralization in southern Quebec (Swinden and Dunsworth, 1995).

There is no known significant mineralization in the infrastructure of the Notre Dame arc in Newfoundland. The calcalkaline ensialic volcanic rocks of the Middle Ordovician Ascott Complex and Weedon Formation in southern Quebec (Figs. 1, 3, 12; Tremblay et al., 1989), however, are host to several important Zn±Pb±Cu VMS deposits. Deposits mined in the past include Eustis-Albert (ca. 1.6 M tonnes of ore grading 2.7% Cu), Suffield (508,000 tonnes grading 7% Zn, 0.52% Pb, 0.91% Cu), the Aldermac-Moulton Hill (300,000 tonnes grading 5.32% Zn, 1.89% Pb, 1.17% Cu), and Cuprad’Estrie (2,180,000 tonnes of ore grading 2.4% Zn, 0.2% Pb, 1.9% Cu, 37.7 g/t Ag, and 0.5 g/t Au) (Swinden and Dunsworth, 1995).

The Middle to Upper OrdovicianMagog Group, generally thought to represent the upper part of a syncollisional forearc sequence (Cousineau and St. Julien, 1992; Schroetter et al., 2003), contains several VMS deposits hosted by black shales and felsic tuffs. The largest of these is the Champagne deposit with reserves of 172,000 tonnes grading 2.68% Zn, 0.45% Pb, 0.4% Cu, 19.7 g/t Ag, and 2.1 g/t Au. The Bolton volcanic and sedimentary rocks in the BVOT, which occur further south near Lake Memphremagog, supposedly represent the lower part of this fore-arc sequence, because they occur within the St. Daniel mélange. They host the polymetallic (Zn-Cu-Pb-Sn-Sb-Ag) Memphremagog massive sulphide deposit (Fig. 11; Trottier et al., 1991). Fore-arc basins, particularly those formed during obduction and collision, are not typically volcanically active. The igneous rocks and associated VMS deposits of the St. Daniel mélange and Magog Group are therefore better interpreted as a rift sequence formed in either a back-arc basin (Kim et al., 2003) or a transtensional basin (Trottier et al., 1991); the latter possibly associated with slab break-off.

No VMS deposits are known in the ca. 480 Ma Annieopsquotch ophiolite belt of the Annieopsquotch accretionary tract (AAT). The ca. 473 Ma ensialic Buchans Arc, formed during west-directed subduction beneath a tectonic sliver of Dashwoods lithosphere incorporated in the AAT (Figs. 2, 5; Zagorevski et al., 2003, 2006a), is host to the important Buchans VMS deposit (Fig. 13), which yielded 16,196,876 tonnes of high grade ore (14.51% Zn, 7.56% Pb, 1.33% Cu, 126 g/t Ag, and 1.37 g/t Au) during mining between 1928 and 1984 (Thurlow, 1990). Pilley’s Island, Gullbridge (3 M tonnes of ore with 1.1% Cu), Lake Bond, and Shamrock (Fig. 13) are other VMS deposits in this arc sequence (Swinden and Dunsworth, 1995). The Buchans arc was rifted during the Middle Ordovician, which led to the opening of a small back-arc basin (Skidder back-arc, Fig. 7) at ca. 465 Ma and migration of the active part of the arc trenchwards. The ensimatic Skidder basalt is host to a cupriferous VMS deposit with reserves of approximately 200,000 tonnes grading approximately 2% Cu and 2% Zn.

Exploits Subzone VMS Deposits

The oldest known VMS deposits of the Exploits Subzone occur in the Lower Cambrian (ca. 513 Ma) Tally Pond volcanic rocks (Penobscot arc) of the Victoria Lake Supergroup in central Newfoundland (Figs. 1, 4). Felsic volcanic rocks host the Duck Pond and Boundary deposits (Fig. 14), of which the Duck Pond has reserves of approximately 4.3 M tonnes grading 3.58% Cu, 6.63% Zn, 1.05% Pb, 68.31 g/t Ag, and 1 g/t Au. A slightly younger phase of the Penobscot arc is represented by the Upper Cambrian predominantly felsic volcanic rocks of the Tulks Group (ca. 498 Ma), which host the Tulks Hill, Tulks East, Bobby’s Pond and Victoria Mine VMS deposits. The economically most important, the Tulks Hill deposit, contains 750,000 tonnes grading 5 to 6% Zn, 2% Pb, 1.3% Cu, 41 g/t Ag, and 0.4 g/t Au. Equivalent rocks occur in theAnnidale belt in southern New Brunswick, which hosts several cupriferous massive sulphide deposits. The Annidale belt probably formed in the Penobscot backarc basin (McLeod et al., 1992).

Early Tremadoc (488-485 Ma), predominantly mafic volcanic rocks of the Pats Pond (Victoria Lake Supergroup), the Wild Bight and Exploits groups represent the youngest phase of the Penobscot arc. The Wild Bight Group contains the Point Leamington, Lockport, Indian Cove, and Long Pond deposits; the Exploits Group contains the Tea Arm and Strong Island deposits (Fig. 14). Point Leamington, the largest of these deposits, is hosted by rhyolite and contains 13.8Mtonnes of massive sulphide grading 1.92% Zn, 0.48% Cu, 18.1 g/t Ag, and 0.9 g/t Au. The VMS deposits are generally associated with refractory volcanic rocks (Swinden and Dunsworth, 1995).

After closure of the Penobscot back-arc basin, arc activity resumed during the Arenig both in Newfoundland and New Brunswick. The composition of the volcanic rocks suggests that the arc was highly extensional, and this phase is referred to as the Popelogan arc in New Brunswick and the Victoria arc in Newfoundland. Its products have been preserved in the stratigraphically upper parts of the Victoria Lake Supergroup, Wild Bight and Exploits groups in Newfoundland. The Oak Mountain Formation (Fig. 6; Meductic Group) and Goulette Brook Formation (Balmoral Group) represent the Popelogan arc in New Brunswick. Neither of these units contains significant VMS mineralization. Consanguineous calc-alkaline plutons in New Brunswick, however, contain Cu-Mo-Au porphyry mineralization. Economically important VMS deposits are abundant in the associated Tetagouche-Exploits back-arc basin, both in Newfoundland and New Brunswick. In Newfoundland, these include the Strickland (260,000 tonnes grading 5.25% combined Pb and Zn), Facheux Bay, and the Barasway de Cerf deposits, hosted by the Bay du Nord and Baie d’Espoir groups (Figs. 1, 4, 15). In New Brunswick, they include the economically very important VMS deposits of the Bathurst Mining Camp (van Staal et al., 2003b). The giant Brunswick No. 12 Mine contained 229 M tonnes of ore grading 7.66% Zn, 3.01% Pb, 0.46% Cu, 91 ppm Ag, and 0.46% Au. The VMS deposits hosted by ensialic back-arc volcanic rocks are relatively rich in Pb. Those hosted by enismatic mafic volcanic rocks, representing remnants of back-arc oceanic crust, are cupriferous. The Great Burnt Lake deposit (680,000 tonnes grading 2-3% Cu) hosted by oceanic basalts of the Cold Spring Pond Formation of central Newfoundland and the Turgeon deposits (1-2Mtonnes grading 4% Zn and 1.5% Cu in Powerline Zone) hosted by the ophiolitic Fournier Group in northern New Brunswick belong to this group (Figs. 1, 4, 8, 15).

Pre-Silurian Mineral Deposits of the Gander Zone

The Cambrian-Ordovician sedimentary and volcanic rocks typical of Ganderia show little or no significant mineralization other than post-accretion, mesothermal gold deposits and pluton-associated mineralization that occur throughout the central mobile belt (see below). However, Ganderian Proterozoic basement rocks locally contain important mineralization that presumably formed while still part of Gondwana. The volcanic rocks enveloping the ca. 563 Ma Crippleback monzodiorite host the Burnt Pond VMS occurrence (BP in Fig. 16). In Cape Breton, Proterozoic marble in the Bras d’Or terrane hosts the Lime Hill stratabound sulphide deposit (LH in Fig. 16), mainly consisting of bands of massive and disseminated spahalerite, pyrrhotite, and pyrite. It has reserves of 136,000 tonnes grading 9% Zn or 1.8 M tonnes grading 2% Zn. The deposit is either a skarn or a syngenetic, carbonate-hosted massive sulphide deposit (Swinden et al., 1995). Polymetallic skarn deposits, however, are locally present in the Bras d’Or terrane where they are associated with latest Neoproteozoic (ca. 560 Ma) calc-alkaline plutons. Late Neoproterozoic arc plutons and volcanic rocks of the Hermitage flexure host the Hope Brook gold mine (Fig. 17), which contained 11,200,000 tonnes of ore grading 4.54 g/t Au. The gold is probably Precambrian in age.

Pre-Silurian Mineral Deposits of the Avalon Zone

Avalonia contains several types of mineral deposits that formed before its late Silurian accretion to Laurentia. The oldest are several VMS deposits (Fig. 18) that are hosted by Neoproterozoic volcanic rocks, which formed during subduction processes in the periphery of Gondwana, before opening of the Iapetus Ocean.

Avalonian VMS occurrences in Newfoundland comprise the Winter Hill and Frenchman Head deposits hosted by the ca. 680 Ma Tickle Point Formation. In Cape Breton, the coeval Stirling volcanic rocks host the Mindamar or Stirling deposit of which 1.1 M tonnes of ore, averaging 6.4% Zn, 1.5% Pb, 0.74% Cu, 75.2 g/t Ag, and 1.03 g/t Au were mined. In New Brunswick’s Avalon Zone, the younger, ca. 630 to 600 Ma Broad River Group host the cupriferous Teahan and Lumsden deposits (Fig. 18).

Late Neoproterozoic (ca. 620 Ma), calc-alkaline granitoids host disseminated Cu and Mo porphyry mineralization in Newfoundland (e.g. Holyrood Granite) and Cape Breton Island (e.g. Coxheath Hills pluton). Circa 620 Ma pyrophyllite alteration zones developed in predominantly felsic volcanic rocks throughout Newfoundland’s Avalon Zone (Fig. 17) are associated with epithermal gold-silver mineralization (e.g. O’Brien et al., 1999).

The Lower to Middle Cambrian sedimentary strata of the Avalon Zone in Newfoundland contain Mn-rich horizons, locally reaching grades of 33.35% Mn. The manganese is probably derived from the weathering of the underlying Neoproterozoic rocks (Swinden and Dunsworth, 1995). The Lower Ordovician siliciclastic rocks of the Bell Island and Wabana groups host the Clinton-type, oolitic hematite iron deposits, which were mined between 1895 and 1966. Potential reserves beneath Conception Bay probably exceed 2 billion tones (Miller, 1983).

Pre-Middle Devonian Mineral Deposits of the Meguma Zone

Meguma contains several types of mineral deposits that formed before its late Early Devonian accretion to Laurentia. The Cambrian-Ordovician Meguma Supergroup underlies most of the exposed Meguma Zone. The Meguma Supergroup is generally regarded as the remnant of a Gondwanan passive margin sequence, probably deposited off the coast of Late Proterozoic-Early Paleozoic North Africa (Schenk, 1997). The transition from the sandy Goldenville to the shaly Halifax groups contains a manganese- rich unit (Fig. 19) that is also enriched in Ba, Cu, Pb, and Zn (Swinden and Dunsworth, 1995). Clinton-type, sedimentary iron deposits occur in the Lower Devonian Torbrook Group (Fig. 19).

Salinic-Acadian Gold Mineralization in the Central Mobile Belt

Mesothermal, and to a much less extent epithermal, gold deposits are common in the Dunnage and Gander zones, and also the eastern part of the Humber Zone (Fig. 17). Gold commonly occurs in sulphide-rich quartz and quartz +carbonate veins or as disseminations in pervasively altered wall rock (Dubé, 1990). Gold in the Humber Zone commonly occurs in veins associated with shear zones developed in the sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Silurian Sops Arm Group of the Springdale belt, which represents part of an overstep sequence deposited above the Humber Zone and Notre Dame Subzone (Williams, 1995). The shear zones are spatially associated with a splay of the Cabot fault system. The Cabot fault accommodated strike-slip movements as early as the Late Ordovician (Brem et al., 2003) and remained active into the Carboniferous. Mineralization is Late Silurian or younger.

The most significant vein deposits in the Notre Dame Subzone are the Cape Ray, Deer Cove, Pine Cove, and Hammer Down (Fig. 17). The mineralized veins are localized in brittle-ductile faults associated with regional Silurian to Devonian transpression (e.g. Dubé et al., 1996). The Stog’er Tight deposit in the Baie Verte Peninsula, hosted by a pervasively altered Tremadoc (ca. 483 Ma) gabbro sill (Ramezani et al., 2002) related to the Snooks Arm arc is the best example of the altered wall-rock-type (Fig. 17).

The Lac Arsenault and Saint-André-de-Restigouche are the most important mesothermal vein deposits in the Notre Dame Subzone in the Quebec Gaspésie (Fig. 17). Mineralization is associated with the Grand Pabos transcurrent (dextral) fault system, which cuts Upper Ordovician to Lower Silurian siliciclastic and calcareous rocks of the Honorat and Matapedia groups of the Gaspé belt. This fault system was predominantly active during the Devonian. Skarn mineralization is also associated with this fault system. The largest vein of the Lac Arsenault deposit contains approximately 40,000 tonnes grading 15.42 g/t Au, 197 g/t Ag, 6.6% Pb, and 3.5% Zn (Swinden and Dunsworth, 1995). Mesothermal deposits in southeastern Quebec are also associated with major fault zones, particularly the BBL, Guadeloupe, and Victoria River fault zones (Fig. 17). The noteworthy Bellechasse-Timmins deposit, with estimated reserves of 1.2 M tonnes of 2 g/t Au, occurs in quartz-carbonate veins hosted by diorite sills that have intruded the Magog Group.

Mesothermal gold deposits are common throughout the Exploits Subzone and Gander Zone of the Canadian Appalachians. In Newfoundland, there are numerous shear zone-related auriferous veins in the Victoria Lake Supergroup. In particular, the unconformable contact between the late Neoproterozoic plutons at the base of the Victoria Lake Supergroup and the Lower to Upper Silurian Botwood Group was a favourable site for strain localization and formation of auriferous veins. In general, strain localization along the contacts of volcanic units in the Victoria Lake Supergroup with the overlying Badger Group led to shear zones, intense alteration, and formation of auriferous veins. The Midas Pond gold deposit is an example of this (Fig. 17). Shearing and vein formation are associated with Silurian and/or Early Devonian transpression, which was accommodated both by reverse and strike-slip faults. Many of these faults are spatially associated with, and/or intersected by, Siluro-Devonian felsic plutonic rocks. Hence, the source of the ore-bearing fluids may be partly magmatic; whereby the fluids were channeled along the faults.

An extensive belt of auriferous veins, locally also containing antimony (e.g. Hunan deposit, Fig. 17), is associated with the Dog Bay Line and also occurs east of it in rocks of the Exploits Subzone and Gander Zone. The veins formed mainly during latest Silurian or Early Devonian dextral transpression associated with Acadian docking of Avalonia (Holdsworth, 1994) and widespread felsic plutonism. Many of the gold occurrences have characteristics of Carlin-type deposits.

Mesothermal gold deposits in the Exploits Subzone and Gander Zone of New Brunswick are mainly associated with segments or splays of the Rocky Brook-Millstream, Woodstock, Bamford Brook, Honeydale, Basswood Ridge, andWheaton Brook fault systems (Fig. 1).An example is the relatively large Elmtree deposit in northern New Brunswick, which comprises quartz-carbonate auriferous veins hosted by sheared and altered Ordovician gabbro affected by the Elmtree fault, a splay of the Rocky Brook-Millstream fault. The deposit contains 350,000 tonnes grading 4.46 g/t Au (Tremblay and Dubé, 1991). Most of the above mentioned faults accommodated significant transcurrent and reverse movements during Acadian dextral transpression (van Staal and de Roo, 1995). Auriferous quartz veins occur also in the Gander Zone of Cape Breton Island (Aspy Zone), where they are associated with Acadian transpression localized in fault zones such as the Eastern Highlands shear zone and the Wilkie Brook fault.

Neoacadian Gold Mineralization in the Meguma Zone

Mesothermal, gold-bearing veins in the Meguma Zone generally occur in the Goldenville Group (Fig. 17), where relatively thick beds of fine-grained, sulphide-rich shale are interlayered with sandstone. The veins have been mined since 1862. The gold-bearing veins occur in several orientations, but were preferentially emplaced in the hinges of anticlines that were modified during a late-stage amplification of the regional upright folding. This was synchronous with ca. 370 Ma granite plutonism and low-pressure regional metamorphism (Keppie et al., 2002).

Siluro-Devonian (Acadian) Pluton-Related Mineralization

The central mobile belt of the Canadian Appalachians, particularly the Exploits Subzone and the Gander Zone, contains a large volume of Late Silurian-Early Devonian (422-395 Ma) felsic to intermediate and minor mafic plutons. Plutons of this age range are rare or absent in the Notre Dame Subzone. They have a broad spectrum of compositions and, not surprisingly, also produced a wide variety of mineral deposits (Fig. 20).

In Newfoundland, peraluminous granites in the Gander Zone and adjacent Exploits Subzone, such as the large North Bay batholith (Fig. 20), which comprises several distinct intrusive phases, are associated with molybdenite and scheelite-bearing quartz veins and/or pegmatites, and veins containing barite, galena, and sphalerite. In New Brunswick, large batholiths like the Late Silurian - Early Devonian Pokiok are associated with quartz veins containing various combinations of stibnite, native antimony, gold, and scheelite (e.g. Lake George deposit). Others, like the North Pole granite, contain base metal sulphide veins. Some high-level, subvolcanic granite stocks (e.g. Benjamin River and Upsalquitch forks) contain porphyry Cu-Mo mineralization. Early Devonian layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions in New Brunswick, such as the St. Stephen and Goodwin Lake gabbroic bodies, locally contain appreciable Ni-Cu sulphide deposits.

Middle Devonian to Early Carboniferous (Neoacadian) Pluton-Related Mineralization

Neoacadian plutons, predominantly granitic, occur in all tectono-stratigraphic zones of the Canadian Appalachians but are most voluminous in the Meguma, Avalon, and Gander zones. Their petrogenesis is linked to the tectonic processes responsible for Meguma’s accretion and subsequent convergence that led to the final closure of the Rheic Ocean (e.g. Murphy et al., 1999).

The large, Upper Devonian Ackley granite in Newfoundland, which stitches the Gander-Avalon boundary (Figs. 1, 4, 20), contains several economically interesting molybdenite occurrences hosted by aplite-pegmatite phases. Fluorite (e.g. St. Lawrence Mine), scheelite, and tin mineralization are generally associated with the most evolved, silica- rich granite phases.

In Nova Scotia, the most evolved phases of the voluminous, Upper Devonian South Mountain batholith (Meguma Zone) and other smaller coeval plutons host several deposits rich in Sn, W, Mo, Cu, U, F, As, Ta, and Nb (Fig. 20).

The Upper Devonian-Lower Carboniferous phases of the Saint George batholith in southern New Brunswick host several significant Sn, W, Mo, and Bi deposits (e.g. Mt. Pleasant). The Burnthill, Trouth Hill, and Dungarvon granites in central New Brunswick are host to W, Sn, Mo, Be, Mo, and F deposits, which mainly occur in quartz veins or as disseminations near the margins of the contact aureole of the plutons.

Cu-rich orebodies in the form of skarns (e.g. Needle Mountain at Gaspé Mine), mesothermal veins (e.g. Madeleine), and porphyry-type (e.g Copper Mountain at Gaspé Mine) mineralization are related to the Middle Devonian McGerrigle Pluton and related sattelite bodies in the Gaspésie of the Quebec Appalachians. The Gaspé Mine produced ca. 124 M tonnes of ore with 0.64% Cu and recoverable Mo, Ag, Bi, Se, and Au between 1955 and 1991.

Mineralization related to Neoacadian granites is also present in southeastern Quebec mainly involving Mo-Cu-, Mo- Bi-Ag-Pb-Zn-, Ag-Pb-Zn-Cu-, and W-Ag-Au-Bi-Pb-Znbearing veins that mainly occur in the contact aureole.

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[Click on an image thumbnail to view a larger image, notice]

 

	Figure 1: Tectonic map of the Canadian Appalachians with the distribution of the Early Paleozoic tectono-stratigraphic zones, subzones and other major tectonic elements (coloured) discussed in text. Middle Paleozoic belts are also indicated but not coloured. Adapted from van Staal (2006). AAT: Annieopsquotch accretionary tract; AC: Ackley granite; AN: Annidale belt; AS: Ascott Complex; B: Burgeo batholith; BB: Badger belt; BBF: Bamford Brook fault; BBL: Baie Verte Brompton Line; BE: Baie d'Espoir Group; BIF: Belleisle fault; BOI: Bay of Island Complex; BVOT: Baie Verte oceanic tract; BRF: Basswood Ridge fault; BSG: Bathurst Supergroup; CB: Cripple Back-Valentine Lake plutons; CC: Coastal Complex; CCF: Cobequid-Chedabucto fault; CF: Cabot fault; CL: Chain Lakes Massif; CO: Cookson Group; CP: Coy Pond Complex; D: Davidsville Group; DBL: Dog Bay Line; EF: Elmtree fault; ESZ: Exploits Subzone; EX: Exploits Group; FO: Fournier Group; GBF: Green Bay fault; GF: Guadeloupe fault; GRUB: Gander River ultrabasic belt; GZ: Gander Zone; HF: Hollow fault; HH: Hodges Hill Pluton; HZ: Humber Zone; K: Kingston belt; KBF: Kennebacasis fault; LBOT: Lushs Bight oceanic tract; M: Miramichi Group; MA: Mont Albert ophiolite; MG: Magog Group; MO: Mount Orford ophiolite; MP: Mount Peyton pluton; NC: Noggin Cove Formation; NE: Neckwick Formation; NDSZ: Notre Dame Subzone; NR: New River Belt; PF: Pine Falls Formation; PP: Pipestone Pond Complex; PT: Pointe aux Trembles Formation; RBF: Rocky Brook-Millstream fault system; RF: Restigouche fault; RIL: Red Indian Line; SA: St Anthony Complex; TE: Tetagouche Group; TM: Thetford Mines ophiolite; TP: Tally Pond Group; TU: Tulks Group; TW: Twillingate trondhjemite; VA: Victoria arc; VRF: Victoria River fault; W: Woodstock Group; WB: Wild Bight Group; WBF: Wheaton Brook fault; WF: Weedon Fromation.
	Figure 2: Summary of the stratigrapic and tectonic evolution of the Humber Zone and Notre Dame Subzone in Newfoundland and relevant mineral deposits. Modified from van Staal et al. (2006). AD: Advocate complex; AOB: Annieopsquotch ophiolite belt; BC: Betts Cove Complex; BU: Buchans and Robert Arm groups; GL: Grand Lake Complex; LB: Lushs Bight Group; LR: Long Range mafic-ultramafic complex; Met. Sole: metamorphic sole; MG: magmatic gap; PH: Pacquet Harbour Group; PR: Point Rousse Complex; RLA: Red Indian Lake arc; SA: St. Anthony Complex; SC: Sleepy Cove Group; SK: Skidder basalts; WA: Western Arm Group.
	Figure 3: Summary of the stratigrapic and tectonic evolution of the Humber Zone and Notre Dame Subzone in Quebec and relevant mineral deposits. Modified from van Staal (2006).
	Figure 4: Summary of the tectono-stratigraphic evolution of the Exploits Subzone, and Gander and Avalon zones in Newfoundland and relevant mineral deposits. Modified from van Staal (2006). AC: Ackley granite; B: Burgeo granite; CB: Crippleback pluton; CP: Coy Pond Complex; D: Davidsville Group; EX: Exploits Group; GRUB: Gander River ultrabasic belt; HH: Hodges Hill pluton; LA/TP: Lake Ambrose Formation/Tally Pond Group; LB: Loon Bay pluton; LL:Long Lake Group; LP: La Poile Group; MP: Mount Peyton pluton; NC: Noggin Cove Formation; PA: Pats Pond Group; PB: Partridgeberry granite; PF: Pine Falls Formation; PP: Pipestone Pond complex; RIL: Red Indian Line; SH/BP: Sops Head/Boones Point Complex; SP: Sutherlands Point Group; SU: Summerford Group; TU: Tulks Group; WB: Wild Bight Group; WWB: Wigwam Brook Group; VDP: Victoria Delta porphyry; VDF: Victoria Delta fault; VL: Valentine Lake pluton.
	Figure 5: A: Cambrian-Early Ordovician tectonic evolution of the Humber margin and outboard peri-Laurentian terranes. Modified from van Staal et al. (2006). Rapid hinge retreat of the east-dipping (present coordinates) Dashwoods plate is responsible for formation of the infant arc terrane represented by the Lushs Bight oceanic tract. B: Stepping-back of the subduction zone in the Humber Seaway produced the Baie Verte oceanic tract, and the Snooks Arm and Notre Dame arcs.
	Figure 6: Summary of the tectono-stratigraphic evolution of the Exploits Subzone, and Gander and Avalon zones in Maritime Canada and Maine. Modified from van Staal (2006). AG: Arisaig Group; BBF: Bamford Brook fault; BL: Blueschist nappe; BM: Bald Mountain volcanic sequence of Winterville Formation (Maine); BRM: Belledune River mélange; C: Clemville Formation; CA: Calais Formation; CB: Chase Brook Formation (Maine); CG: Cookson Group; CH: Chaleurs Group; CL: California Lake Group; D: Dalhousie Group; DP: Dunn Point volcanics; F: Ferrona Formation; FB: Fredericton Belt sequence; FO: Fournier Group; G: Goldenville Group; GB: Grog Brook Group; GO: Goulette Brook Formation; GP: Goss Point Formation; H: Halifax Group; HDF: Honeydale fault; KBF: Kennebecasis fault; KG: Kingston Group; KM: Kendall Mountain Formation; LB: Lawson Brook schist; LP: La Plante Formation; LV: La Vieille Formation; M: Megunticook Formation; MAG: Mascarene Group; ME: Mount Elisabeth pluton; MEG: Meductic Group; MG: Miramichi Group; MM: Miramichi mélange; MOL: Mosquito Lake Formation; MOP: Mohannes pluton; MPG: Matapedia Group; OM: Oak Mountain Formation; P: Pocomoonshine gabbro; PO: Popelogan Formation; PV: Pointe Verte Formation; RF: Ragged Falls pluton; SF: Simpsons Field Formation; SH: Sheephouse Brook Group; SI: Simpsons Island Formation; SM: South Mountain batholith; SS: St. Stephen gabbro; T: Tomogonops Formation; TE: Tetagouche Group; TO: Torbrook Group; W: Woodland Formation; WE: Weir Formation; WG: Woodstock Group; WR: White Rock Formation.
	Figure 7: A: Taconic 2 collision of Dashwoods with the Humber margin and subduction initiation west of Dashwoods was responsible for formation of the Annieopsquotch ophiolite belt; B. Collisional thickening of the Notre Dame arc, breakoff of the Humber margin slab, and start of accretion of the Annieopsquotch ophiolite belt. Modified from van Staal et al. (2006).
	Figure 8: Tectonic evolution of the Popelogan-Victoria arc –Tetagouche-Exploits back-arc system. Modified from van Staal (2006). Arc magmatism shuts off in the Caradoc due to a collision with the peri-Laurentian Red Indian Lake arc. Convergence continues due to stepping back of the subduction zone into the Tetagouche-Exploits back-arc basin, the closure of which results in the Salinic Orogeny.
	Figure 9: The Humber Zone with the distribution of the various mineral deposits discussed in the text. DH: Daniel's Harbour; HH: Harvey Hill; LA: Lord Aylmer; RP: Round Pond; SF: St. Fabien; SH: St. Armand-Highwater; U: Upton; W: Wares.
	Figure 10: VMS deposits in the Lushs Bight oceanic tract (LBOT).
	Figure 11: VMS deposits in the Baie Verte oceanic tract.
	Figure 12: VMS deposits in the Notre Dame arc.
	Figure 13: VMS deposits in the Annieopsquotch accretionary tract.
	Figure 14: VMS deposits in the Penobscot arc.
	Figure 15: VMS deposits in the elements of the Popelogan/Victoria arc – Tetagouche/Exploits back-arc system.
	Figure 16: Mineral deposits in Ganderian Neoproterozoic basement.
	Figure 17: Epithermal and mesothermal gold deposits in the Canadian Appalachians. HB: Hope Brook mine; HP: Hickey's Pond prospect; SN: Steep Nap prospect.
	Figure 18: Mineral deposits in the Avalon Zone (gold deposits excluded).
	Figure 19: Mineral deposits in the Meguma Zone (gold deposits excluded). C: Clementsport; E: Eastville; LC: Lake Charlotte; N: Nictaux-Torbrook.
	Figure 20: Mineral deposits associated with the Acadian and Neoacadian plutons. AC: Ackley granite; BBL: Baie Verte-Brompton Line; BG: Burnthill granite; BR: Benjamin River porphyry; CF: Caledonia fault; DBL: Dog Bay Line; DF: Dover fault; G: Gaspé Mine; GL: Goodwin Lake gabbro; MP: Mt. Pleasant; NB: North Bay batholith; NP: North Pole granite, P: Pokiok batholith; RIL: Red Indian Line; SS: St. Stephens gabbro; UF: Upsalquitch Forks porphyry.