Modern aquarium history began on March 4th 1850, when Robert Warington, Secretary and founding member of the Chemical Society, read to the assembled members at Apothecaries' Hall, Blackfriars, his paper entitled Notice of Observations on the adjustment of the relations between the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms, by which the vital functions of both are permanently maintained.
The paper enlightened the audience of his aquarium experiments, which began in the May of 1849 when he set up in a “large glass receiver of about 12 gallons” a freshwater aquarium for two goldfish. The circumstances of his experiment were the “… receiver was about half filled with ordinary spring water, and supplied at the bottom with sand and mud, together with loose stones of larger size of limestone tufa, from the neighbourhood of Matlock, and sandstone; these were arranged so that the fish could get below them, if they wished so to do. At the same time that the fish were placed in this miniature pond, if I may so term it, a small plant of the Vallisneria spiralis was introduced, its roots being inserted in the mud and sand, and covered by one of the loose stones, so as to retain the plant in its position.”
Initially all went well and the fish thrived, but as some of the leaves on the growing plant fell to the bottom and decomposed, “this, by accumulation, rendered the water turbid, and caused a growth of mucus, or green, slimy matter on the surface of the water, and on the sides of the receiver.” To overcome the problem Warington introduced five or six Himnæa stagnalis (water snails), which promptly ate the offending matter. So successful was the vegetable growth and of the role of the snails, within a short period the snails began to breed, laying an “enormous quantity of gelatinous masses of eggs” all about the receiver. Upon hatching, the moment the miniature snails showed any sign of life they were immediately devoured by the fish, “Thus we have that admirable balance sustained between the animal and vegetable kingdoms” ; the gaseous exchange between animal and plant supporting their environment, whilst the snails both cleaned it and provided nourishment for them both.
Continuing with his freshwater aquarium, in the January of 1852, Warington also began tentative experiments with marine creatures in an effort to expand upon his balancing theory; using seawater collected from the English Channel by a Billingsgate oyster boat and specimens gathered from Broadstairs, Kent. In January 1852, the Chemical Society published his follow-up paper; Observations on the Natural History of the Water-Snail and Fish kept in a confined and limited portion of Water, which both expanded upon his freshwater aquarium observations, and ended with a brief note about his marine aquarium experiments (1).

Unknown to Warington, in the spring of 1852, Philip Henry Gosse also began experimenting with marine aquariums. Working throughout the spring and summer, Gosse submitted a paper detailing his achievements to the Annals & Magazine of natural History in September. Either by coincidence or intent, Gosse's paper, On keeping Marine Animals and Plants alive in unchanged Sea-Water , and Warington's follow-up paper, were both published in the 1852 October issue of the Annals. Warington's paper concluded - “that I have after many difficulties and failures succeeded in keeping sea-water perfectly clear for upwards of six months, and that I have for the last five weeks had several sea-anemones living in it which at present appear extremely healthy, and the water has not been disturbed for the last fourteen days. My great difficulty in the midst of London has been to obtain materials to work with.”
Recognising his thinly veiled request for marine specimens, Gosse chose to support him rather than view him as a competitor, writing immediately to offer his service. Following a brief correspondence, Gosse volunteered to collect the specimens Warington required, delivering them to him in London upon his return in December. When they eventually met, they discussed a number of topics concerning their experiments, after which Gosse admitted his success “was less perfect than Mr Warington's.” Gosse also met and delivered about 300 marine specimens to Mr Mitchell, the Garden's Secretary; later agreeing to return to Weymouth to collect more for The Society's proposed public marine Aqua Vivaria (2).

Again, by coincidence, upon Gosse's arrival at Weymouth in April 1853, the Annals published another aquarium article, submitted by Mr Thompson of Weymouth , in which he stated his desire to send specimens to Mr Mitchell for display at Regent's Park fish house. Accompanying the article was a dimensioned sketch of Thompson's vivarium, explaining - “Never having seen one it is possible some of my suggestions may already be in use ”. Most importantly, his design shows the tank to have a sloping

bottom, which he suggested should have battens fixed upon it “in order to attach stones and weeds at different levels, and also sand; as plants as well as animals, it is well known, affect different levels.” With a tap at the lowest point he also suggested, water be drawn off twice a day to expose the top of the slope to the atmosphere, thus simulating the tides. If Thompson did indeed draw off water through the tap twice a day and return it later to the top shallow part of the aquarium, his success in keeping his marine specimens alive, could probably be attributed to him inadvertently circulating the water. His design also shows a second tap positioned at the top, accessing the space behind the slope; but fails to explain its function.
Although Gosse and Thompson soon became good friends, he ignored Thompson's aquarium idea when, in the September of that year, 1853, he ordered a rectangular aquarium. Made to his own design it was “2feet long, 1½feet wide, 1½feet deep; the sides and ends of 3/16 ths plate-glass; the bottom of slate; the corners of birch-wood, turned into pillars, each surmounted by a knob, and united by a frame top going all round. The glass is set in grooves in the slate and wood, and fastened with white-lead putty.”
Suitable as this tank may have been for Gosse, for the mass market something else was needed, something beyond a confectioners glass jar but less expensive than Gosse's rectangular tank. Some journals recommended using an upturned glass dome, as used to protect clocks, but these proved much too fragile. The obvious advantage these vessels provided against the large glazed pot foot-bath or mixing bowl was the contents could be studied through the side; providing a much more alluring view. But being the only vessels available at the time of the Regent's Park fish house opening, and with the flood of seashore books, which included Gosse's Naturalist's Rambles on the Devonshire Coast , encouraging the public to “have a go”, the aquarium craze slowly began to take off (3).

To follow the fortunes of the aquarium craze I referred to the volumes of the “penny weeklies”. The Family Friend of 1856, reports, “while Dr. Badham and Mr. Gosse were racking the brains of anxious glass manufacturers, every glass warehouse contained a much better and far cheaper form of vessel than any produced for those gentlemen by the united efforts of suggestiveness and mechanical skill”. The problem was initially solved by Mr Hall, a taxidermist from Finsbury, who, by turning a common propagating glass upside down and supporting its lifting knob in a block of wood to keep it upright, brought “the Aquarium within the means of the humblest student or poorest school-master”. Recognising the simplicity of the idea, Gosse mentioned the plan in his next “seaside book” The Aquarium. As late as 1865, this same idea was espoused as the most suitable arrangement for enthusiast's who regularly holidayed by the seashore, but instead of using the more robust propagating glass, it was recommended to use a lighter cap glass, available in a variety of sizes from any glass warehouse.
The upturned propagating glass was improved further by Mr Phillips, a glass manufacturer of 116, Bishopsgate, London, who by 1856, had produced a vessel of whiter stouter glass, “in the form of a major convolvulus”. With its own supporting base, straight sides and large curved rim, it provided a distinct view of the whole mid-water. Today, this vessel is immediately recognisable as the bell glass, and is the form most used by illustrated journals during the aquarium craze. The bell glass still had problems, best illustrated by J. Paul's letter to the National Magazine,
“I saw the aquarium first at Regent's Park Gardens , then in a shop window in the City Road , and then – everywhere. It is just the thing to arrest a wandering eye, and it arrested mine; and I at once determined to be a happy possessor of a tank. Alas, I knew not the penalties attendant on this worship of Neptune.
Of all the shops that sprang up to satisfy the public demand for marine aquaria, one of the most popular was W. Alford Lloyd's at 164 St John Street Road, which advertised its wares in Notes & Queries in 1855; but I will return to J. Paul's letter.
“First of all, I bought a sixteen inch bell-glass, filled it with mould and rock-work, and stocked it with an abundance of British fishes. A slight frost came, and one morning, only a fortnight after my commencement, I was petrified at beholding the wreck of my toy; it was fractured into a dozen pieces, eight or nine gallons of water and a few quarts of fluid mud had saturated and spoilt the carpet, and all my pretty fishes were sprinkled about like dead sprats on the pavement at Billingsgate. I cooked two fine dace for breakfast, and gave the rest to the cat. Vile Sacrifice! Now what shall I do? – fling the vessel to Old Harry, and bid adieu to the noble sport of aquatics, or try again? There must be some grand secret, known to the few adepts in these matters, else how are the tanks managed that are everywhere exhibited.”
Obviously, J. Paul had not purchased his aquarium from Alford Lloyd, for he, in an effort to avoid this kind of problem produced a number of booklets, which he hoped would help his customers to achieve success. Answering the letter, Mr Shirley Hibberd, completely ignoring the fact that J. Paul's aquarium had shattered, replied - “Try again! Decidedly; and when you do try, proceed as follows: Empty out the vessel, and clean the sides….”
For the fanciful hobbyist, rectangular glass tanks became much more ornate, Gosse describes such a tank exhibited at the Crystal Palace by Messrs. Lloyd and Summerfield, of Birmingham, “They construct rectangular tanks wholly of glass, the bottom, the corner-pillars, and the bars which connect them above, being all of that material. Their scale of prices, however, seems very high.” Illustrations of other tanks manufactured at this time with ornate cast iron frames, are often used today to “as an example of the Victorian aquarium”, breaking easily, few survived. A clue to the suitability of these ornate tanks as aquariums is in their design, if it has feet in each corner, note if they are strong enough to support the weight of water the aquarium is capable of containing. Might I suggest most of these tanks were probably designed to be used as vivariums, as described by Hibberd in his book, Rustic Adornments; to hold green tree frogs and the like (4).

For the naturalist and serious aquarium enthusiast, although the bell-glass certainly had its place alongside the rectangular glass tank designed by Gosse, a revolutionary new design of tank was available. Gosse describes his fish house in 1854 as having four tanks, three to his design, readily available from Sanders and Woolcott at a reasonable price, and one of “Mr Warington's plan. It is of zinc, with the back and two sides of slate, the front and two front-sides alone being of glass. Its form is six-sided, the front resembling a bow window; it is three feet long by one foot ten inches in greatest width, and the same in depth; the peculiarity is that the back slopes inward, so that the bottom is but eight inches wide. I cannot commend this form.”
Warington's square sloping back tank, a plan first published in the Annals of November 1853, is remarkably similar to that first published by Thompson, but omits the cavity and taps. Warington's plan, designed “from the experience I had obtained in my experiments with the freshwater tank. I was induced to modify slightly the con­struction of this vessel; thus, at the back, or part towards the light, the framing was filled with slate in the same way as the ends and bottom; for I had found that the glass, originally employed, very soon became covered with a confervoid growth which had an unpleasing appearance to the eye, and in consequence of which I had been obliged to paint the glass on the exterior to prevent this growth from increasing to too great an extent. It was also an unnatural mode of illumination, as all the light should pass through the surface of the water. The front towards the room and the was constructed of plate­glass, the whole being set in a stout frameork of zinc, and cemented with what is known under the name of Scott's cement, and which I have found to answer for the purpose most admirably”
Gosse's honest criticism of Warington's tank design was not surprising, in the June issue of the 1854 Annals, he had published his receipt for mixing formulated seawater which, publicly supported by William Alford Lloyd, was suitable for supporting aquarium marine life. Warington, being a chemist, roundly criticised the formula some months later in the same journal, pointing out that many trace elements were not included. Gosse, probably upset that Warington had not chosen to discuss the matter privately, swiftly replied in a manner that left no room for reconciliation. Warington, ignoring Gosse's indignant response, published another paper in the Annals in the spring of 1855, concerning the lifestyle of the common prawn, again describing the slope back tank used during the observations. In the autumn of the same year, he published another much more important paper, about the affect light and critical temperature had upon the aquarium, highlighting the detrimental effects rapid temperature changes can have upon its occupants (5).

Lloyd, in partnership with Mr Edward Edwards of Menai Cottage, Anglesea, further improved upon Warington's plan, patenting their design in July of 1858. The design “converted the triangular space below the slope into a receptacle for water in a state of darkness, and containing no animals, but in contact with the water in the part of the tank where the animals lived; and this arrangement, termed the “dark-water-chamber slope-back tank” is perhaps the best existing form of tank without a current of water”. The sloping back, made of slate or other suitable material, was designed to be fixed in place at the top and bottom, being slightly narrower than the tank it allowed the water to circulate, albeit slowly, around its sides and into the chamber below.
“According to our Invention, we obtain a chamber serving as a reservoir of fluid not exposed to the light, and which is therefore retained in a clear and serviceable condition, free from such obnoxious vegetation; and this fluid being allowed to communicate with that in the space containing the aquatic animals and plants, the excessive and in this respect detrimental effects of actinism are neutralized and counteracted”.
The patent did allow for the future use of pumps to aid the natural circulation, but these only became available to the home enthusiast after the design was long forgotten. Although the dark chamber was patented as a natural filter, it had another advantage, by restricting the inhabitants to only half of the total volume of water, it naturally avoided the common problem of overcrowding. The irony of Lloyd's invention was his description of “obnoxious vegetation” or Warington's unpleasing “confervoid growth”; after opening his aquarium shop Lloyd soon discovered the shortcomings of Warington's balancing theory when applied to a commercial venture. He found the red and green seaweeds he purchased from his collectors were more likely to die than grow, as it was virtually impossible to judge the correct amount of light or shade for their survival. He discovered however, when setting up a new stock aquarium, if he left the water to mature in situ before introducing any animal life, a spontaneous growth of fine green weed would occur, which although not as pleasing to the eye, was more effective in producing streams of oxygen bubbles than any of the introduced seaweeds (Lloyd's obnoxious vegetation and Warington's confervoid growth).. When the weed growth was established, Lloyd introduced his stock specimens, confident they would display well and remain healthy whilst awaiting sale to his customers (6).

Although writers of the time do not mention stagnation, they do record attempts of “additional stimulation” to the aquarium water. The most common illustration, even in books as late as the turn of the century, show a supplementary smaller container situated above the aquarium, filled with water ladled from the aquarium. This flows back to the aquarium in a controlled manner through a tube to create a fountain; based upon Gosse's fountain aquarium design. From my own experiments, I found much the same as the Regent's Park aquarium, this design is, more fancy than fact; and who had the time or inclination to give their aquarium that much attention. Public interest in the parlour aquarium was already diminishing by the time Lloyd patented the dark chamber aquarium, but it was not responsible for it. It did however prove Lloyd's worst fear, the fickle public did not have an appetite for a hobby which, to achieve success, demanded the participant learn and understand some basic scientific principals. Much to his disappointment, his award winning marine aquarium exhibit in the International Exhibition of 1862, demonstrating his latest design aquarium incorporating Hurwoods circulating system, could not stave off bankruptcy.
The day of the professional had arrived when the London Zoo fish house opened in 1853, to achieve success with its industrial scale aquariums, industrial ideology was needed to manage them. As the new professional aquarists took up their posts, they paid scant regard to the amateur ideologies that had permeated through the whole of natural history, theological belief and social stature; the demand upon the professional aquarium curator was to keep showy specimens alive and ensure the fish house was profitable. Most achieved this by adopting the simple principle, if it worked do it, and let the scientist work out the principle later. The professional marine scientist was also in its dawn, leaving little room for the contribution of the enthusiastic amateur who could only continue to walk the seashore and dredge the shallows.
Warington died in 1868, only seeing the first of the revolutionary changes his original paper brought about, but for Gosse, although public interest faltered, he kept his parlour aquariums for practical study whilst he completed his classification of British sea anemones. In 1864, with the publication of Actinologia Britannica behind him, his studies slowly but surely pulled him away from his beloved seashore and parlour aquarium. With the crash of the parlour aquarium craze Lloyd swept into the public aquarium business, achieving success and worldwide recognition for his aquarium designs.

Bob Alexander. Nov. 2005.

1. “Robert Warington 1806-1858, then Secretary to the Chemical Society and employed by the Society of Apothecaries, Apothecaries Hall, London , as a chemical operator”. Robert Warington and the Moral Economy of the Aquarium. Hamlin C. Journal of the History of Biology, Vol. 19, No1 (Spring), p 131-153.
Shortly before his death in 1867, Warington noted that an aquarium begun in 1851 was still in operation – apparently a triumphant confirmation of the principle of 1850. Ibid.
Hamlin gives an interesting insight into the religious aspects of Warington's aquarium papers and in particular, his balancing theory.

2. "My friend Mr. P. H. Gosse, who was then sojourning at Ilfracombe for his health, offered in the kindest manner possible to supply me with materials, and from that period; he has always most heartily responded to my wants”. Warington, Annals Vol. 12, September 10th 1853 .
“My own experiments with marine animals and plants were commenced about the same time as Mr. Warington's; namely at the end of January, 1852”. The Aquarium, Gosse, 1854, page 13.

3. "From my experiments, I suggest the following plan, in respect to the manufacture of Vivariums. Never having seen one it is possible some of my suggestions may already be in use". On Marine Vivaria. Thompson W. Annals 2nd Series Volume 11, p 382-386.
“I will describe in detail its dimensions, form, and structure; the mode in which I filled and stocked it; with some accounts of failure and disappointment to serve as beacons, as well as of success to stimulate with encouragement” . The Aquarium. Gosse, 1854, p94.

4. “I procured from Mr. A. Pellatt's establishment one, of the largest dimensions they would undertake to blow for me, viz. 12 inches in diameter”. Home Friend, 1856, p193.
“A very pleasing aquarium, which has the advantage of cheapness, is greatly in request, formed of a propagating glass turned upside down, and set on a stand of polished mahogany or rosewood. This form has cylindrical sides, and a rounded bottom, terminating in a knob, which, being inserted into a cavity in the stand, gives security to the whole.” The Aquarium. Gosse 1855, Second Ed. p255.
“Let him purchase at any of the glass warehouses some circular cap glasses of different sizes, say three in number, and 8, 7, and 6 inches in diameter respectively. These will fit one inside the other, and when packed in a small hamper are easily and safely carried. Blocks of wood are necessary, on which to set up the glasses. These may be about six inches square, by three inches deep, the upper surface hollowed out in the of the cap-glass, with a hole to admit the knob”. Hardwicke's Science Gossip. July 1865, p155.
Letter; “An Aquarium in Trouble” J. Paul. National Magazine, 1857 Vol. 1 p352.
“Specimens of their productions [the all glass aquarium] may be seen at the Crystal Palace , and at 35, and 36, Aldermanbury, London .” The Aquarium, Gosse, Second Ed. 1855, p255.
“The evils formerly felt and complained of in tanks were chiefly these - 3. The material of which the frames were made was corrodible, or brittle, being of iron, zinc, or brass; the glass sides were generally not thick enough, and the bottom was commonly either metal or a thin friable slab of roofing slate. 4 – Their whole construction was not strong and rigid enough to bear the long continued pressure of a bulk of water.” A List; Lloyd W.A. 1858 p45

5. Description of Warington's slope back tank. On Preserving the Balance between the Animal and Vegetable Organisms in Sea Water. Warington 1853. Annals Nov. 1853, p319-324. Series 2, Vol. 14, p366 – 373.
Warington's improvements to his slope back tank. Memorandum 3. Memoranda of Observations made in small Aquaria, in which the Balance between the Animal and Vegetable Organisms was permanently maintained.
“I have also another tank with a sloping back, made on Mr. Warington's plan”. The Aquarium, Gosse, Second Edition revised and enlarged.1856 p252.
“ If Mr. Warington supposes that I obtained from him one atom of information previously unknown to me, on the subject of making sea-water from its constituent salts, he is most thoroughly mistaken. He is no less wrong in saying that I “consulted” him; since I merely mentioned what was on my mind in familiar conversation”. Annals. Jan. 1855, p17-19.

6. Lloyd's description of Edward's dark chamber is from the Official Handbook to the Marine Aquarium of the Crystal Palace , 1872, p15.
The description of dark chamber is taken from patent A.D. 1858,-No.1618.

7. “…but most people will not do these things, whether they understand or not why they are recommended to do them; they would much rather give up their aquaria than be put to any such trouble, and they have given them up, while the very few exceptional persons, such as Mr. Ramsay and his lady friend – personally known to me – and who are painstaking and persevering, are those only who succeed with anything like decency. They slowly and patiently work out their success by the only method in which it can be attained – actual experience and the intelligent application of broad principles”. Lloyd. Hardwicke's Science Gossip. July 1865, p154.
International Exhibition, 1862. A Marine Aquarium, constructed and shewn by W. Alford Lloyd, dealer in aquaria. Owen collection Ref; 425, Natural History Museum , London .
“You will be sorry to learn of my bankruptcy through want of capital and the falling off of public interest in aquarian matters, and that too, just as I have got the subject in a state approaching a decent definitiveness, with laws well understood, and with all manner of effective and interesting mechanical appliances as you will see by the enclosed little pamphlet, and the aquarium to which it refers has gained me a Prize Medal. My only consolation now is that I have done all this in an unselfish spirit, for the love of the thing, and single-handed. Gatty Collection, Sheffield Archives. Ref; M.D.2138-17.