The Wayback Machine - https://web.archive.org/web/20201002174437/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-the-life-sciences/article/establishment-and-maintenance-of-socially-imposed-monogamy-in-western-europe/319BDB6481D8B26308470EF31B79FC13
Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Home

The Establishment and Maintenance of Socially Imposed Monogamy in Western Europe

  • Kevin MacDonald (a1)

Abstract

Although stratified societies have typically been characterized by intensive polygyny, socially imposed monogamy has developed in the stratified societies of Western Europe. Following a critical review of other theories of socially imposed monogamy, a multivariate, nondeterministic theory is developed. Within this theory, a variety of internal political processes can result in socially imposed monogamy, but this phenomenon—while consistent with evolutionary theory—is underdetermined with respect to (1) evolutionary theory, (2) human nature/nurture (i.e., the characteristics of humans), and (3) external ecological variables. Data on the origins and maintenance of socially imposed monogamy in Western Europe are reviewed, indicating that post-antiquity socially imposed monogamy originated in the late Middle Ages and has been maintained since that period by a variety of social controls and ideologies, including political activities of the Christian Church and, in later periods, of women and lower- and middle-status males. As a result of institutionalized controls on reproduction, non-monogamous Western sexuality has been directed at obtaining psychological rewards deriving from evolved motivational systems (e.g., sexual pleasure, excitement, feelings of dominance, status, or intimacy), but this non-monogamous sexuality has not typically been a major source of increased reproductive success.

Copyright

References

Hide All
Ahroni, R. (1986). Yemenite Jewry: Origins, Culture, and Literature. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Alexander, R.D. (1979). Darwinism and Human Affairs. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
Alexander, R.D., Hoogland, J.L., Howard, R.D., Noonan, K.M., and Sherman, P.W. (1979). “Sexual Dimorphisms and Breeding Systems in Pinnipeds, Ungulates, Primates and Humans.” In Chagnon, N.A. and Irons, W., (eds.), Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press.
Amussen, S.D. (1988). An Ordered Society: Gender and Class in Early Modem England. London: Basil Blackwell.
Ashley, M. (1977). James II. London: J.M. Dent and Sons.
Ayling, S. (1972). George III. New York: Knopf.
Baer, Y. (1961). A History of the Jews in Christian Spain. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America.
Bahlman, D.W.R. (1957). The Moral Revolution of 1688. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Balch, S.N. (1986). “The Neutered Civil Servant: Eunuchs, Abductees, and the Maintenance of Organizational Loyalty.” In White, E. and Losco, J., (eds.), Biology and Bureaucracy: Public Administration and Public Policy from the Perspective of Evolutionary, Genetic and Neurobiological Theory. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
Bennett, D. (1983). King Without a Crown: Albert, Prince Consort of England, 1819–1861. London: Heineman.
Bernier, O. (1984). Louis the Beloved: The Life of Louis XV. New York: Doubleday.
Betzig, L. L. (1986). Despotism and Differential Reproduction. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.
Betzig, L. L. (1992). “Roman Monogamy.” Ethology and Sociobiology 13(5–6):351–83.
Betzig, L. L. (1993). “Sex, Succession, and Stratification in the First Six Civilizations.” In Ellis, L., (ed.), Social Stratification and Socioeconomic Inequality: Vol. 1: A Comparative Biosocial Analysis. New York: Praeger.
Borgerhoff Mulder, M. (1991). “Human Behavioural Ecology.” In Krebs, J.R. and Davies, N.B., (eds.), Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach. Third edition. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Boswell, J. (1988). The Kindness of Strangers: The Abandonment of Children in Western Europe from Late Antiquity to the Renaissance. New York: Pantheon.
Bourchard, C.B. (1981). “Consanguinity and Noble Marriages in the Tenth and Eleventh Century.” Speculum 56:268–87.
Boyd, R. and Richerson, P.J. (1985). Culture and the Evolutionary Process. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Brooke, C.N.L. (1956). “Gregorian Reform in Action: Clerical Marriage in England, 1050–1200.” The Cambridge Historical Review 12:120.
Brown, P. (1987). “Late Antiquity.” In Veyne, P., (ed.), A History of Private Life. Volume I. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Brown, P. (1988). The Body and Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity. New York: Columbia University Press.
Brundage, J.A. (1975). “Concubinage and Marriage in Medieval Canon Law.” Journal of Medieval History 1:117.
Brundage, J.A. (1987). Law, Sex, and Christian Society in Medieval Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cairncross, J. (1974). When Polygamy Was Made a Sin: The Social History of Christian Polygamy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Carlton, C. (1983). Charles I. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Chagnon, N.A. (1979). “Is Reproductive Success Equal in Egalitarian Societies?” In Chagnon, N.A. and Irons, W., (eds.), Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press.
Chrimes, S.B. (1972). Henry VII. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Cohen, J. (1982). The Friars and the Jews: The Evolution of Medieval Anti-Judaism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Cohen, M.R. (1994). Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Coleman, D.A. (1990). “The Demography of Social Class.” In Mascie-Taylor, N., (ed.), Biosocial Aspects of Social Class. London: Oxford University Press.
Corbin, A. (1990). “Intimate Relations.” In Perrot, M., (ed.), A History of Private Life: IV. From the Fires of the Revolution to the Great War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Daly, M. and Wilson, M. (1983). Sex, Evolution, and Behavior. 2nd edition. Boston: PWS.
Davis, R.H.C. (1988). A History of Medieval Europe. 2nd edition. London: Longman.
de la Ronciere, (1988). “Portraits: Kinship.” In Duby, G., (ed.), A History of Private Life, II: Revelations of the Medieval World. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Depauw, J. (1976). “Illicit Sexual Activity and Society in Eighteenth Century Nantes.” In Forster, R. and Ranum, O., (eds.), Family and Society. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Dickemann, M. (1979). “Female Infanticide, Reproductive Strategies, and Social Stratification: A Preliminary Model.” In Chagnon, N.A. and Irons, W., (eds.), Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press.
Donahue, C. (1979). “What Causes Fundamental Legal Ideas? Marital Property in England and France in the Thirteenth Century.” Michigan Law Review 78:5988.
Drijvers, J.W. (1987). “Virginity and Asceticism among Late Roman Elites.” In Blok, J. and Mason, P., (eds.), Sexual Asymmetry: Studies in Ancient Society. Amsterdam: Gieben.
Duby, G. (1978). Medieval Marriage. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Duby, G. (1983). The Knight, the Lady, and the Priest. Translation byBray, Barbara. London: Penguin Books.
Duggan, C. (1981). “Equity and Compassion in Papal Marriage Decretals to England.” In Van Hoecke, W. and Welkenhuysen, A., (eds.), Love and Marriage in the Twelfth Century. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press.
Ebrey, P. (1986). “Concubines in Sung China.” Journal of Family History 11:124.
Epstein, L.M. (1942). Marriage Laws in the Bible and the Talmud. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Finkelstein, L. (1924). Jewish Self-Government in the Middle Ages. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Fitzgerald, C. (1938). A Short Cultural History of China. New York: Appleton-Century.
Flandrin, J.L. (1979a). Families in Former Times: Kinship, Household and Sexuality. Translation bySouthern, R.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Flandrin, J.L. (1979b). “Comment and Controversy: A Case of Naivete in the Use of Statistics.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 9:309–15.
Flinn, M.V. and Low, B.S. (1986). “Resource Distribution, Social Competition, and Mating Patterns in Human Societies.” In Rubenstein, D.I. and Wrangham, R.W., (eds.), Ecological Aspects of Social Evolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Fox, R. (1986). “Fitness by Any Other Name.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9:192–93.
Frank, R. (1973). “Marriage in 12th and 13th Century Iceland.” Viator 4:473–84.
Geary, P.J. (1988). Before France and Germany: The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World. New York: Oxford University Press.
Gibbs, V. (1926). Complete Peerage. Volume VI. London: St. Catherines Press.
Gies, F. and Gies, J. (1987). Marriage and the Family in the Middle Ages. New York: Harper and Row.
Gilchrist, J. (1969). The Church and Economic Policy in the Middle Ages. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Gillis, J.R. (1981). Youth and History. New York: Academic Press.
Given-Wilson, C. and Curteis, A. (1984). The Royal Bastards of Medieval England. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Goldberg, H.E. (1989). “Family and Community in Sephardic North Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives.” In Kraemer, D., (ed.), The Jewish Family. New York: Oxford University Press.
Goody, J. (1983). The Development of the Family and Marriage in Europe. London: Cambridge University Press.
Grayzel, S. (1933). The Church and the Jews in the XIIIth Century. Philadelphia: The Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate Learning.
Gregg, P. (1988). Oliver Cromwell. London: J.M. Dent and Sons.
Hanawalt, B. (1986). The Ties that Bound: Peasant Families in Medieval England. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hattan, R. (1978). George I: Elector and King. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Helmholz, R.H. (1974). Marriage Litigation in Medieval England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Herlihy, D. (1985). Medieval Households. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Herlihy, D. (1991). “Biology and History: Some Suggestions for a Dialogue.” Brown University, unpublished manuscript.
Herlihy, D. and Klapische-Zuber, C. (1985). Tuscans and Their Families. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Hibbert, C. (1972). George IV, Prince of Wales: 1762–1811. London: Longman.
Hibbert, C. (1973). George IV, Regent and King: 1811–1830. London: Longman.
Hibbert, C. (1976). Edward VII: A Portrait. London: Allen Lane.
Hill, J.E.C. (1967). Society and Puritanism in Pre-Revolutionary England. Second edition. New York: Schocken Books.
Hogg, M.A. and Abrams, D. (1987). Social Identifications. New York: Routledge.
Hollingsworth, T.H. (1965). “A Demographic Study of the British Ducal Families.” In Glass, D.V. and Eversley, D.E.C., (eds.), Population in History: Essays in Historical Demography. Chicago: Aldine.
Hopkins, K. (1978). Conquerors and Slaves: Sociological Studies in Roman History. Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Houlbrooke, R. (1979). Church Courts and the People during the English Reformation 1520–1570. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hutton, R. (1989). Charles the Second: King of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Irons, W. (1983). “Human Female Reproductive Strategies.” In Wasser, S.K, (ed.), Social Behavior of Female Vertebrates. New York: Academic Press.
Jacobsen, G. (1982). “Sexual Irregularities in Medieval Scandinavia.” In Bullough, V.L. and Brundage, J., (eds.), Sexual Practices and the Medieval Church. New York: Prometheus Books.
Johnson, G. (1986). “Kin Selection, Socialization, and Patriotism: An Integrating Theory.” Politics and the Life Sciences 4:127–54.
Jordan, W.C. (1989). The French Monarchy and the Jews: From Philip Augustus to the Last Capetians. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Judd, D. (1982). King George VI: 1895–1952. London: Michael Joseph.
Knowles, D. and Obolensky, D. (1968). The Middle Ages. The Christian Centuries: A New History of the Catholic Church. Volume 2. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Krebs, D., Denton, K., and Higgins, N.C. (1988). “On the Evolution of Self-Knowledge and Self-Deception.” In MacDonald, K., (ed.), Sociobiological Perspectives on Human Development. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Ladurie, E.L. (1986). The French Peasantry 1450-1660. Translation bySheridan, A.. Berkley, CA: University of California Press. (Originally published in 1977.)
Laslett, P. (1983). “Family and Household as Work Group and Kin Group: Areas of Traditional Europe Compared.” In Wall, R., Robin, J., and Laslett, P., (eds.), Family Forms in Historic Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Laslett, P. (1984). The World We Have Lost. Third edition. New York: Scribners.
Lawrence, C.H. (1994). The Friars: The Impact of the Early Mendicant Movement on Western Culture. London: Longman.
Lea, H.C. (1906–07). The History of the Inquisition of Spain. Volume 3. New York: American Scholar Publications. (Reprinted 1966.)
Levine, D. and Wrightson, K. (1980). “The Social Context of Illegitimacy in Early Modern England.” In Laslett, P., Ooseterveen, K., and Smith, R.M, (eds.), Bastardy and Its Comparative History. London: Edward Arnold.
Low, B.S. (1992). “Sex, Coalitions, and Politics in Pre-Industrial Societies.” Politics and the Life Sciences 11:6380.
Lynch, J.E. (1972). “Marriage and Celibacy of the Clergy: The Discipline of the Western Church: An Historical-Canonical Synopsis.” Jurist 23:1438; 189–212.
Lynch, J.H. (1992). The Medieval Church. London: Longman.
MacDonald, K.B. (1983). “Production, Social Controls and Ideology: Toward a Sociobiology of the Phenotype.” Journal of Social and Biological Structures 6:297317.
MacDonald, K.B. (1988). Social and Personality Development: An Evolutionary Synthesis. New York: Plenum.
MacDonald, K.B. (1989). “The Plasticity of Human Social Organization and Behavior: Contextual Variables and Proximate Mechanisms.” Ethology and Sociobiology 10:145–69.
MacDonald, K.B. (1990). “Mechanisms of Sexual Egalitarianism in Western Europe.” Ethology and Sociobiology 11:195238.
MacDonald, K.B. (1994a). A People that Shall Dwell Alone: Judaism as a Group Evolutionary Strategy Westport, CT: Praeger.
MacDonald, K.B. (1994b). “Group Evolutionary Strategies: Dimensions and Mechanisms.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17:629–30.
MacDonald, K.B. (1995). Separation and Its Discontents: Toward an Evolutionary Theory of Anti-Semitism. Westport, CT: Praeger.
MacDonald, K.B.(in press). “Rules on Endogamy in Ancient Rome: Despotic or Egalitarian?” Behavioral and Brain Sciences.
MacFarlane, A. (1980). “Illegitimacy and Illegitimates in English History.” In Laslett, P., Ooseterveen, K., and Smith, R.M, (eds.), Bastardy and Its Comparative History. London: Edward Arnold.
Marchant, R.A. (1969). The Church under the Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Masters, R. (1989). The Nature of Politics. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Miccoli, G. (1990). “Monks.” In LeGoff, J. (ed.), Medieval Callings. Translation byCochrane, L. G.. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mitchison, R. and Leneman, L. (1989). Sexuality and Social Control: Scotland 1660–1780. London: Basil Blackwell.
Mitterauer, M. (1991). “Christianity and Endogamy.” Continuity and Change 6:295333.
Moorman, J.R.H. (1955). Church Life in England in the Thirteenth Century. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Neuman, A.A. (1969). The Jews in Spain: Their Political and Cultural Life during the Middle Ages, Volumes I and II. New York: Octagon Books.
Newman, C.A. (1986). “Review Essay of Royal Bastards.” Medieval Prosopography 7:8797.
Newman, C.A. (1988). The Anglo-Norman Nobility in the Reign of Henry I: The Second Generation. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Oosterveen, R.M. and Smith, R.M. (1980). “Family Reconstitution and the Study of Bastardy: Evidence from Certain English Parishes.” In Laslett, P., Ooseterveen, K., and Smith, R.M, (eds.), Bastardy and Its Comparative History. London: Edward Arnold.
Orians, G.K. (1969). “On the Evolution of Mating Systems in Birds and Mammals.” American Naturalist 103:589603.
Ozment, S.E. (1983). When Fathers Ruled: Family Life in Reformation Europe. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Peller, S. (1965). “Births and Deaths among Europe's Ruling Families since 1500.” In Glass, D.V. and Eversley, D.E.C., (eds.), Population in History: Essays in Historical Demography. Chicago: Aldine.
Phillips, R. (1988). Putting Asunder. A History of Divorce in Western Society. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Porter, R. (1982). “Mixed Feelings: The Enlightenment and Sexuality in Eighteenth-Century Britain.” In Bouce, P., (ed.), Sexuality in Eighteenth-Century Britain. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Quaife, G.R. (1979). Wanton Wenches and Wayward Wives: Peasants and Illicit Sex in Early Seventeenth Century England. London: Croom Helm.
Raaflaub, K.A. (1986a). “The Conflict of the Orders in Archaic Rome: A Comprehensive and Comparative Approach.” In Raaflaub, K.A, (ed.), Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Raaflaub, K.A. (1986b). “From Protection and Defense to Offense and Participation: Stages in the Conflict of the Orders.” In Raaflaub, K.A, (ed.), Social Struggles in Archaic Rome: New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Ridley, J. (1984). Henry VIII. New York: Viking.
Robb, B.A. (1966). William of Orange, Volume II. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Rose, K. (1983). King George V. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
Saller, R. (1991). “European Family History and Roman Law.” Continuity and Change 6:335–46.
Salter, F. (1995). Emotions in Command: A Naturalistic Study of Institutional Dominance. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Schimmelpfennig, B. (1992). The Papacy. Translation bySievert, J.. New York: Columbia University Press.
Sheehan, M.M. (1971). “The Formation and Stability of Marriage in Fourteenth-Century England. Evidence of an Ely Register.” Medieval Studies 33:228–63.
Smith, N. (1982). “Sexual Mores and Attitudes in Enlightenment Scotland.” In Bouce, P., (ed.), Sexuality in Eighteenth-Century Britain. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Southern, R.W. (1970). Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages. Hammondsworth, UK: Penguin.
Southwood, T.R.E. (1981). “Bionomic Strategies and Population Parameters.” In May, R.M, (ed.), Theoretical Ecology: Principles and Applications. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
Spufford, M. (1979). Contrasting Communities: English Villagers in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries; originally published in 1974. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Spurr, J. (1990). “‘Virtue, Religion and Government’: The Anglican Uses of Providence.” In Harris, T., Seward, P., and Goldie, M., (eds.), The Politics of Religion in Restoration England. London: Basil Blackwell.
St. Aubyns, G. (1979). Edward VII: Prince and King. New York: Atheneum.
Stone, L. (1977). The Family, Sex, and Marriage in England: 1500–1800. New York: Harper and Row.
Stone, L. (1990). The Road to Divorce. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Stone, L. (1992). Uncertain Unions: Marriage in England 1660–1753. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Symons, D. (1979). The Evolution of Human Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.
Tellenbach, G. (1993). The Church in Western Europe From the Tenth to the Early Twelfth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Thornhill, N. (1991). “An Evolutionary Analysis of Rules Regulating Human Inbreeding and Marriage.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 14:247–94.
Trench, C.C. (1973). George II. London: Allen Lane.
Trevor, M. (1988). The Shadow of a Crown. London: Constable.
Trexler, R. (1974a). “Infanticide in Florence: New Sources and First Results.” History of Childhood Quarterly 1:98116.
Trexler, R. (1974b). “The Foundlings of Florence, 1395–1455.” History of Childhood Quarterly 1:259–84.
Triandis, H.C. (1990). “Cross-Cultural Studies of Individualism and Collectivism.” Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 1989: Cross Cultural Perspectives. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
Triandis, H.C. (1991). “Cross-cultural Differences in Assertiveness/Competition vs. Group Loyalty/Cohesiveness.” In Hinde, R.A. and Groebel, J., (eds.), Cooperation and Prosocial Behavior. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Trivers, R. (1972). “Parental Investment and Sexual Selection.” In Campbell, B., (ed.), Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man, 1871–1971. New York: Aldine.
Ullman, W. (1970). The Growth of Papal Government in the Middle Ages: A Study in the Ideological Relation of Clerical to Lay Power. Third edition. London: Methuen.
van den Berghe, P. (1979). Human Family Systems. New York: Elsevier-North Holland.
van der Dennen, J.M.G. (1987). “Ethnocentrism and In-Group/Out-Group Differentiation. A Review and Interpretation of the Literature.” In Reynolds, V., Falger, V., and Vine, I., (eds.), The Sociobiology of Ethnocentrism. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.
van der Dennen, J.M.G. (1991). “Studies of Conflict.” In Maxwell, M. (ed.), The Sociobiological Imagination. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
van de Walle, E. (1980). “Motivations and Technology in the Decline of French Fertility.” In Wheaton, R. and Hareven, T.K, (eds.), Family and Sexuality in French History. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Van Gulik, R.H. (1961). Sexual Life in Ancient China. The Hague: E.J. Brill.
Verner, J. and Willson, M.F. (1966). “The Influence of Habitats on Mating Systems of North American Passerine Birds.” Ecology 47:143–47.
Veyne, P. (1987). “The Roman Empire.” In Veyne, P. (ed.), A History of Private Life. Volume I. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Weisfeld, G. (1990). “Sociobiological Patterns of Arab Culture.” Ethology and Sociobiology 11:2349.
Wemple, S.F. (1985). Women in Frankish Society: Marriage and the Cloister, 500–900. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Wilson, D.S. (1989). “Levels of Selection: An Alternative to Individualism in Biology and the Human Sciences.” Social Networks 11:257–72.
Wilson, D.S., Pollock, G.B., and Dugatkin, L.A. (1992). “Can Altruism Evolve in Purely Viscous Populations?” Evolutionary Ecology 6:331–41.
Wilson, D.S. and Sober, E. (1994). “Re-Introducing Group Selection to the Human Behavioral Sciences.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17:585654.
Wilson, E.O. (1978). On Human Nature. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wrightson, K. (1980). “The Nadir of English Illegitimacy in the Seventeenth Century.” In Laslett, P., Ooseterveen, K., and Smith, R.M, (eds.), Bastardy and Its Comparative History. London: Edward Arnold.
Wrigley, E.A. and Schofield, R. (1981). The Population History of England, 1541–1871. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Ziegler, P. (1971). King William IV. London: Clooins.

Related content

Powered by UNSILO

The Establishment and Maintenance of Socially Imposed Monogamy in Western Europe

  • Kevin MacDonald (a1)

Metrics

Altmetric attention score

Full text views

Total number of HTML views: 0
Total number of PDF views: 0 *
Loading metrics...

Abstract views

Total abstract views: 0 *
Loading metrics...

* Views captured on Cambridge Core between <date>. This data will be updated every 24 hours.

Usage data cannot currently be displayed.