JOHN KING AND JIM TRANQUADA A New History of the Origins and Development of the 'Ukulele, 1838—1915 1979 work Hawaiian Music and Musicians, George Kanahele observed that until he and his collaborators set to work, the field of Hawaiian music was "terra incognita . . . much of what we thought we knew was incomplete, unreliable or fallacious."1 Surprisingly, Kanahele's lament still holds true today for the 'ukulele, despite its iconic status. First crafted by Madeiran immigrants who arrived in Hawai'i in the late 1870s, the 'ukulele's fate has been similar to that of its older cousin, the guitar, which, as one historian has noted, also suffers from the "promulgation of legends and the misrepresentations of historical fact."2 With the exception of a new dictionary of early Hawaiian luthiers,3 much of the information in print about the 'ukulele is unreliable or incorrect. Most accounts are based on the same small group of frequently cited books and magazine articles, which in turn rely on "family traditions" or on reminiscences solicited 40 years or more after the fact.4 This article seeks to correct and enhance the historiIN HIS PIONEERING John King teaches guitar at Eckerd College in St. Petersburg, Florida. His musical compositions and arrangements have been published by Tuscany and Editions Orphee. He is a contributor to Soundboard, the journal of the Guitar Foundation of America, and is author of The Hawaiian Ukulele and Guitar Makers: 1884—1930 (NALU Music, 2001). His recording of Bach compositions arranged for unaccompanied 'ukulele has been featured on National Public Radio. A former newspaper reporter with a degree in history from Stanford University, Jim Tranquada is director of communications for Occidental College in Los Angeles. He is a greatgreat grandson of 'ukulele pioneer Augusto Dias. The Hawaiian Journal of History, vol. 37 (2003) 2 THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY cal record by drawing on contemporary sources whenever possible, and to provide a broader social, historical, and economic perspective on the origins, introduction, and early dissemination of the 'ukulele. Precisely when the 'ukulele—or more accurately, the machete, a small, four-stringed treble guitar from the island of Madeira—was introduced to Hawai'i remains a matter of dispute. No contemporary references to the machete's presence in Hawai'i prior to 1879 havecome to light. By the turn of the century, when the 'ukulele had become inextricably linked with Hawai'i, some promoters of the instrument and of Hawaiian music did little to correct the assumption on the mainland that it was a native instrument. 5 However, the origin of the instrument was acknowledged in print as early as 1886, when Honolulu newspaper editor Augustus Marques noted in an article on music in Hawaii that Hawaiians do not seem to take much, nor readily, to our instruments; either piano, or wind or string. But they are exceptionally fond of the guitar, and they play it as a solo instrument, with a tenderness, a softness which speaks well for the delicacy of their feelings. They also extensively use the guitar to accompany their modern meles and even their hulas: of late they have taken to the banjo and to that hideous small Portuguese instrument now called "taro patch fiddle."6 The Portuguese origins of the 'ukulele, as the instrument came to be known in the 1890s, were repeatedly noted by subsequent writers, including Charmian London, who wrote in 1907 that the 'ukulele "seems a part of the native at every merrymaking. It hailed originally from Portugal, but one seldom remembers this, so native has it become to the islands." 7 Nineteenth-century accounts of life on Madeira—the small island west of Morocco that has been part of Portugal since the early 15th century—frequently mention the machete as its most popular folk instrument. (Machete is the name used in both Portuguese and English-language accounts of Madeira throughout the 19th century. Braguinha appears to be a 20th century term, which first appears in Hawai'i in 1917.8) "In the evenings [Madeirans] often amuse themselves with their guitars (violas) and machettes, upon which they frequently perform well," English visitor Fanny Burney Wood wrote in her journal during a stay in 1838—1839. "On such days as this—fes- A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1838-1915 3 tas—the countrymen go about in parties, dancing, singing and playing to the music of these little instruments, of which they are so fond." 9 (fig. 1) A visit in 1843 left American tourist John Dix unimpressed. The machete, Dix wrote, is a dwarf guitar, the body perhaps eight inches long, with four strings of catgut tuned in fifths. Its tones are like those of a violin, when the strings are snapped with the fingers instead of being played on with the bow, excepting that they are higher, and, consequently, more shrill. Its music, by itself, is thin and meagre; but in the streets at night, with a guitar or violincello accompaniment, it is very pretty. There are two or three performers in Funchal who have attained a wonderful proficiency in playing on it. Their execution is astonishing. . . . It is not probable that the machete will ever emigrate from Madeira. It is the most common instrument here; but I doubt very much whether it would be, if this were not its birthplace.10 FIG. 1 Country Musicians, William Combe, A History of Madeira (London: R. Ackermann, 1821) n.p. 4 THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY The machete also traveled with emigrants to other parts of the Madeiran diaspora in the 19th century. Driven by overpopulation, poverty, a series of crop failures and food shortages, chronic political instability, and an unpopular system of compulsory military service, Madeirans emigrated by the tens of thousands to Brazil, to Demerara (what is now Guyana), and to the Caribbean as well as to Hawai'i.11 "Fond of music, [Madeiran emigrants] enlivened their homes by the guitar, accompanied by the voice," noted Henry G. Dal ton in his 1855 history of British Guiana. "A small kind of guitar, called by them 'michette' [machete], is a very favourite instrument, with which, playing the most pleasing airs, they often perambulated the streets."12 Madeiran emigration to Hawai'i began with the arrival of 123 contract workers aboard the German bark Priscilla in September 1878.13 Among the more than 420 Madeirans aboard the Ravenscrag the following year, were three men who would play key roles in the development of the 'ukulele: cabinetmakers Augusto Dias (fig. 2) (1842— • \ FIG. 2 Augusto Dias (1842-1915), J. A. Gonsalves, photographer, Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands. Jim Tranquada Collection. A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1 8 3 8 - 1 9 1 5 5 1915), Manuel Nunes (1843—1922), and Jose do Espirito Santo (1850—1905).14 Cabinetmaking in Madeira dates back to the 15th century—not suprising for an island whose virgin forests were responsible for its name, which means "wood" in Portuguese. 15 While visiting the village of Ponta do Sol in 1839, Fanny Burney Wood noted "the very handsome new tables, chairs, and sofas (evidently of island manufacture)" in the home of her host, and when English-born Isabella de Franca visited the island in 1853, she wrote that nearly all of the furniture she saw was of island manufacture, cabinetmaking being a trade in which "the Madeiran people excel." 16 Furniture shops were plentiful in Funchal in 1889, guidebook author Ellen M. Taylor noted, "and in some of these excellent wardrobes, chairs and tables may be found of Til [Ocotea foetens], or Vinhatico [Persea indica, also known as Madeiran mahogany], walnut, or plane." 17 Fellow Ravenscrag passenger Joao Fernandes (1854—1923), a tinsmith by trade, may have been the first to publicly play the machete in Hawai'i. According to his own account, he borrowed a machete from Joao Gomes da Silva—who reportedly was too shy to play in public—and "strummed away to his heart's content" to celebrate the ship's safe arrival.18 Such impromptu musical celebrations had been witnessed elsewhere: in 1841, Madeirans landing in Demerara "were so delighted to have reached the 'El Dorado' of their dreams that they danced and sang and embraced the sailors on their arrival." 19 But Fernandes was not the only musician aboard the Ravenscrag, nor was de Silva's machete unique, as the Haxvaiian Gazette reported less than two weeks after the ship's arrival: During the past week a band of Portuguese musicians, composed of Madeira Islanders recently arrived here, have been delighting the people with nightly street concerts. The musicians are true performers on their strange instruments, which are a kind of cross between a guitar and a banjo, but which produce very sweet music in the hands of the Portuguese minstrels. We confess to having enjoyed the music ourselves and hope to hear more of it. "Music hath charms to sooth the savage breast," it is said, and although not savage ourselves, we plead guilty to the soothing influences of the Portuguese music.20 Although most of the adults aboard the Ravenscrag had signed contracts as agricultural workers, more than half of the male heads of 6 THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY household and single men aboard, including Santo, Nunes, Dias, and Fernandes, were natives of the city of Funchal, the commercial and administrative center of Madeira. 21 An anonymous 22-page pamphlet, Breve Noticia Acerca das Ilhas de Sandwich, printed to recruit contract workers in Madeira and the Azores, painted an alluring portrait of Hawai'i's high wages and low cost of living. "Craftsmen like cabinetmakers, carpenters, blacksmiths, tilelayers, etc. never receive less than 1,500 reis per day, and can sometimes earn 2,500 reis or more," it promised—several times the average wage for skilled workers in Funchal. 22 Indeed, the Pacific Commercial Advertiser noted little more than a month after the Ravenscrag s arrival that word was circulating of a new shipment of Azorean immigrants "said to be agriculturalists almost exclusively, and therefore more to be desired than the mixed lot of mechanics—cobblers, tinkers, and all sorts—who came by the Ravenscrag.''>23 Precisely when the new immigrants established themselves in Honolulu is not clear. As Hawai'i's capital, largest city, and commercial center, it offered the best opportunities for pursuing their trade. Honolulu's first professional cabinetmaker, Louis Morstein, had opened his doors half a century before; by the mid-i88os, the city's growing population supported a flourishing furniture trade, with 12 manufacturers listed in the 1884 city directory. 24 Neither Santo, Nunes, Dias, nor Fernandes are listed in the 1880— 1881 Honolulu directory. According to grandson John Nunes of Wailuku, Maui, Manuel Nunes worked as a laborer on the Big Island before returning to Honolulu. 25 Dias' daughter Caroline testified that her father worked on Hawai'i and Kaua'i before moving to Honolulu; "Augusto Diaz" is listed on tax assessment records as an employee of Lidgate's Plantation in Laupahoehoe on the island of Hawai'i in 1880. 26 Santo's and Fernandes' whereabouts during this period have not been determined. Nor is it clear whether Santo, Nunes, and Dias had previous experience building instruments. J. A. Gonsalves, a fellow Ravenscrag passenger, told ethnomusicologist Helen Roberts that the three men were partners in Madeira, but no evidence has been found to confirm this account. 27 They were not among those known to have built stringed instruments in Funchal during the last half of the 19th century, including Octavianno Joao Nunes, his son,Joao Augusto Nunes, A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1838 — 1915 7 Augusto da Costa, Antonio Quintal, Rufino Telles, and Vicente de Menezes. 28 Dias, Nunes, and Santo all were identified as marceneiros, or cabinetmakers, in their emigration files, rather than as violeiros, or stringed-instrument makers. 29 However, the immigrants' knowledge of the specialized techniques needed to build machetes and other instruments suggests that they were not novices. Given the numerous examples of 19th-century European and American cabinetmakers who also turned their hands to instrument making, it's possible that Santo, Nunes, and Dias began building instruments on the side while working in one of Honolulu's furniture firms.30 Dias is the first Hawaiian guitar maker for which there is any documentation. In the 1884 city directory, Augusto Dias, guitar and furniture maker, was listed as living and working at 11 King Street in Honolulu's Chinatown, near the bridge over Nu'uanu stream.'51 A 1956 contest to find the oldest 'ukulele in Honolulu, sponsored by the firm of Kamaka & Sons, identified a Dias instrument dated 1884 that allegedly accompanied 13-year-old Princess Kaiulani to England.'52 (fig. 3) That same year, "Emanuel Nunis" is listed as a cabinetmaker with C.E. Williams, proprietor of the Pioneer Furniture House on Fort Street—the oldest, largest, and most successful furniture store in the Islands. 33 Santo's whereabouts in 1884 a r e n o t clear, although it appears that at some point during this early period he worked with Nunes in Williams' shop, as his name appears on an elaborately inlaid Williams center table. 34 An inlaid tilt-top table of similar design owned by King Kalakaua also has been attributed to Nunes and Santo. 35 In August 1885, both Dias and Nunes advertised their services as guitar makers in Honolulu's Portuguese-language newspaper, 0 Luso Haiuaiiano—Dias, "Manufacturer of guitars and machetes, and all string instruments" (Manufactor de violas e machets, e todo 0 instrumentos de corda) at 11 King Street, and Nunes' "cabinetmaker's shop of string instruments, guitars and machetes" (tenda de marcinaria de instrumentos de corda, violas e machets) at 77 Nu'uanu Avenue. 36 Dias and Santo may have been working together by the summer of 1886, when 0 Luso reported a "more than disgraceful" unprovoked attack by Dias on a fellow immigrant "in the shop of Mr. Jose Espirito Santo" that resulted in a broken window and numerous cuts to the victim.37 It may be that Santo took in Dias as a result of the April 1886 Chinatown 8 THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY fire, which leveled 37 acres of the city and gutted all of King Street from the Nu'uanu stream to Bethel Street—an area that would have included the Dias shop at 11 King.38 Dias and Santo were working together in February 1887 when they were successfully sued by a customer who claimed they had lost the $25 guitar he had left with them for repair.39 The suit, tried in Honolulu Police Court in April 1887, names Dias and "Do Santos" as "being by trade repairers and makers of Guitars" and refers to their establishment as a "shop" or "store." Dias and Santo claimed the guitar had been stolen by "the reform school boys"—appropriately enough, as the Honolulu Reform School was a favorite recruiting ground for Henry Berger, director of the Royal Hawaiian Band.40 In the 1888 Honolulu directory, Manuel "Nunas," described as a guitar maker for the first time, was listed as living and working on Alapai above Young.41 August Dias, guitar maker, had moved his estab- FK;. 3. (left to right) Unidentified, Annie Cleghorn holding 'ukulele, and Princess Kaiulani in kimono holding parasol, late 1880s. Hawaii State Archives. A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1838—1915 9 lishment to 89 Nu'uanu Avenue; close by, at 99 Nu'uanu, was the shop of Jose do E Santos [sic]. 42 Santo was the first to buy a display ad in the directory to publicize his services as a "Guitar Maker and Repairer": I make a specialty of repairing all Musical String Instruments, and solicit orders from all the Islands. Any work sent in will be attended to immediately. I guaranteefirst-classwork in all respects. Special orders taken to make Guitars of all sizes.43 Santo's phrase "guitars of all sizes" underscores the uncertainty surrounding early nomenclature. For example, the taro patch fiddle, or simply taro patch, has been generally understood since World War I to be a large 'ukulele with four courses, double or less commonly single—the instrument described in early method books by Kealakai and Kia.44 But taro patch was also a term that was applied to the 'ukulele for years. In 1892, the pseudonymous author of Land of the 0-0 described the taro patch fiddle as "a diminutive guitar of four strings"; as late as 1918, in describing the 'ukulele, Albert A. Stanley stated that "'taro-patch fiddle' is a name frequently applied to the instrument." 45 Thus it is not clear to which instrument Marques was referring in 1886, or which the family of Robert Louis Stevenson took with them at the start of their 1889 voyage from Honolulu to Samoa, which Fanny Stevenson described as "a native instrument something like a banjo, called a taropatch fiddle." 46 To add to the confusion, Paradise of the Pacific described the taro patch fiddle in 1906 as a five-stringed instrument "in length and size something between the 'ukulele and the guitar." 47 In his Unwritten literature of Hawaii, Nathaniel Emerson described the taro patch as having five strings, a definition also used by Helen Roberts in 1924. 48 "The taro-patch fiddle in its original home [Madeira] had five strings, as it has here [in Hawaii], and was known as the 'rajao'; while the ukulele with four strings had its Portuguese representative in the 'braga,'" Roberts wrote. 49 In her 1889 guidebook, Ellen Taylor noted the manufacture of "machetes, the native instrument, both large and small" for the tourist trade in Funchal, and listed "the machete, the rajao, and the machete de Braga" without detailing the differences among the three. 50 Even earlier, Platao de Vakeel listed "violas, rajoes e machetes" in his 1869 survey of Madeiran music. 51 1O THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY Slightly larger than the machete, the rajdo appears to be a Portuguese variant of the Spanish guitarro and a close relative of the baroque tiple. Significantly, the rajdo was tuned re-entrantly, D G C E A (the lowest note being the third string, C). This same relative tuning appears as early as 1760 in Andres de Sotos' tiple method, and is also documented in Ernesto Veiga de Oliviera's 196(3 survey of Portuguese instruments. 52 The earliest published tuning for the 'ukulele is that of instrumental virtuoso, composer, teacher, and band leader Ernest Kaai in his pioneering 1910 method book, The Ukulele: A Hawaiian Guitar, And How To Play It. Kaai's tuning of G C E A is the standard, re-entrant, my-dog-has-fleas tuning known today. 53 However, it differs substantially from that described for the machete in 19th-century Madeira. Notwithstandingjohn Dix's assertion that the machete was tuned in fifths, most of his contemporaries reported that the Madeiran instrument was tuned in intervals of thirds and a fourth, in descending order 5 4 —the same D G B D tuning confirmed by Michael'angelo Lambertini and Veiga de Oliveira.55 Five years after Kaai's method appeared, A. A. Santos and Angeline Nunes—a granddaughter of Manuel Nunes—published a brief primer entitled Original Method and Self-Instructor on the Ukulele. This tutor would be unremarkable but for the fact that it calls for the 'ukulele to be tuned like a Madeiran machete: D G B D . "The original way of tuning the Ukulele has not been put into print, consequently it is unknown to most people," Santos and Nunes wrote. "There are several methods in circulation which are adapted to the taro patch instead of the Ukulele. In fact, it is the taro patch method which has been applied to the Ukulele."5'1 Every method known to be in circulation in 1915—Kaai, Kia, Kealakai, and Bailey—used what Santos and Nunes called "the taro patch method" of tuning the 'ukulele, the standard tuning in use today: G C E A, the tuning of the first four strings of the rajdo and the five-string taro patch. The earliest Hawaiian name applied to the newly introduced machete has been reported to have been pila li'ili'i, or little fiddle. 57 An early Santo business card (ca. 1898) suggests that the name pila li'ili'i actually may have referred to an instrument larger than the 'ukulele. The card identifies Santo as a manufacturer of big guitars, small guitars, and 'ukuleles (Mea hana i na Pila Gita NunuiPila Gita Lii Lit a me na Pila Ukulele) consistent with Santo's advertised readiness A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1 8 3 8 - 1 9 1 5 11 to build "guitars of all sizes."58 However, by the turn of the century the name 'ukulele had clearly become the popular term of choice. In her account of a visit to Hawai'i in 1890, tourist Helen Mather described a high tea in Honolulu where "native musicians, on the guitar, violin, taropatch, and ukelele, were rendering delightful music." 59 This is the earliest known appearance in print of the word 'ukelele, which predates the appearance of the now-preferred spelling of'ukulele by at least five years, when a short story published in The Hawaiian refers to "the twang of the ukulele, the soft melodious cadence of the hula song." 60 Mather's spelling might be more than just a quirk: according to Gurre Ploner Noble, native Hawaiians named the new instrument "ukelele—from the word uke, which means striking on wood, and lele meaning jumping or strumming, the manner in which the instrument was played." 61 The word 'ukulele was not coined in response to the introduction of the machete, but appeared perhaps a century earlier to describe another European export—the cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis).62 Defined in Lorrin Thurston's 1865 Hawaiian dictionary as simply "a flea," 'ukulele appears in earlier accounts of life in the Islands. In an account of his travels on O'ahu in 1823 with Kamehameha II, missionary Hiram Bingham described an overnight stay in a house in Pu'uloa, "the occupancy of every inch of which was stoutly disputed by the uku-lele." 63 By the turn of the century, 'ukulele was commonly understood to mean leaping or jumping flea. Jack London, in The Cruise of the Snark, wrote that 'ukulele "is the Hawaiian for jumping flea as it is also the Hawaiian for a certain musical instrument that may be likened to a young guitar."1'4 Ernest Kaai provided the first extant rationale for the name in his 1910 method book: "The Hawaiians have a way of playing over all the strings at the same time, strumming and skipping their fingers from one side of the instrument to the other, hence the name, Ukulele (a bouncing flea)." 65 There are several accounts of how the name 'ukulele came to be applied to the new instrument; one of the most frequently cited is that it was derived from the nickname for Edward W. Purvis, vice chamberlain to King Kalakaua. 66 However, Purvis resigned in August 1886 after Chamberlain Charles H. Judd was dismissed from his post. 67 Purvis was the suspected author of two notorious burlesques on the Kalakaua monarchy, The Grand Duke of 12 THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY Gynbergdrinkenstein and the Gynberg Ballads. It is unlikely that the nickname of a man who sought to undermine the king in the months prior to the imposition of the Bayonet Constitution of 1887 would have been applied to an instrument favored by native Hawaiians. This seems even more unlikely given that Nunes and Dias were advertising "machets" just 12 months before Purvis' resignation and that the earliest known reference to the 'ukulele did not appear in print until 1891 (three years after Purvis' death in Colorado.) 69 From 1890 to 1898, Santo and Dias are listed in city directories as guitar makers at a variety of addresses in the Chinatown area. Nunes is listed as a cabinetmaker, first with H. H. Williams & Co.'s undertaking, furniture, and upholstery establishment on Hotel Street, then with Hopp & Co.'s furniture, bedding, and upholstery business on King Street through 1896, and as a guitar maker (with his name misspelled as "Munez") in 1898. The directory entries for 1898 are significant for several reasons: they contain the first explicit reference to 'ukuleles, to the use of native hardwoods, and to the first competition to os tres violeiros. Santo advertised himself as a manufacturer of "guitars, ukuleles, and taropatch fiddles"; Dias billed himself as a "Guitar-maker and Repairer, Instruments Made of Hawaiian Wood"; and a guitar maker by the name of Naapohu was listed for the first and only time that year."° It is the Madeirans' use of Hawaiian hardwoods for the tops of their instruments, rather than spruce or pine, that marks the 'ukulele's most significant departure from European tradition. While Honolulu cabinetmakers used a variety of native and imported materials in their furniture, the most sought-after pieces were made of native woods, particularly koa (Acacia koa), which Hawaiians had used for centuries for building canoes, calabashes, and other items. 71 With the opening of Lorrin Andrews' steam sawmill in Makawao, Maui, around 1880, Santo, Nunes, and Dias presumably had a reliable source of koa at a cost comparable to or cheaper than imported spruce. 72 Given that the machete was introduced dtiring a period of political turmoil that ultimately led to the loss of Hawaiian independence, the purchase of a koa 'ukulele may have been seen in the same light as the purchase of koa furniture: an expression of pride in Hawai'i and of love of the land. 73 The 'ukulele achieved a widespread popularity in Hawai'i in a A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1 8 3 8 - 1 9 1 5 13 remarkably short period of time. As early as 1888, its ubiquity was such that one visitor who took a trip aboard the inter-island steamer Kinau described how the native Hawaiians camped out on deck sleeping, smoking, and "playing the taro-patch fiddle—the national instrument of Hawaii." 74 Less than ten years later, while in Washington, D.C., Queen Lili'uokalani described how the daughter of Rep. Samuel G. Hilborn of Oakland, California, "sang some of my own Hawaiian songs, to [the accompaniment of] our instrument, the ukulele, [and] gave to me that joy, so sadly sweet, of listening to the sounds of home in foreign lands." 75 Just as quickly, the 'ukulele became an indispensable element of island iconography. Among the hundreds of photos taken by amateur photographer Alfred Mitchell during an 1886 visit is a portrait of an unknown Hawaiian woman dressed in a holoku and posing with an 'ukulele. 76 By 1892, commercial studio photographs of a trio of hula dancers posing with an 'ukulele, a guitar, and a taro patch were on sale in Honolulu—an archetypal image that later became a popular postcard. 77 (fig. 4) Its uniquely Hawaiian identity was firmly established by the turn of the century, when one mainland visitor described how Hawaiians indulge in the delights of a luah [sic], where they can—arrayed in holokus and flowers, hair unbound, feet bare or slippered—recline on the mat-protected ground, eat poi, seaweed and fish, and other indescribable Hawaiian dishes, with the aid of their fingers alone, listen to the sweet music of the eukalili and native voices, and watch the beautiful swaying dance of the hulah girls . . .7iS Some of the 'ukulele's popularity was no doubt due to its oft-noted characteristics of being small, portable, and easy to play. Its price tag was also smaller than that of a guitar, although the purchase of an 'ukulele still represented a major investment during an era when the vast majority of workers were employed in unskilled or semi-skilled jobs and plantation laborers were earning from $10 to $15 per month. 79 Little contemporary evidence exists regarding the cost of an 'ukulele prior to 1900; when Santo died in 1905, his widow sold 18 'ukuleles for an average wholesale price of $5.78. 8() However, the explosive growth of the sugar industry—interrupted only by the imposition of the McKinley tariff from 1891 to 1894—fueled a new prosperity that no doubt encouraged sales of the new instrument. 81 As 14 THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY one visitor in August 1897 noted, "Honolulu, we can see at a glance, is a well-kept and thriving place . . . in fact, people are making money here, and there would be many who would have little to complain of were it not for the worries of politics."8- The playing and singing skills of Fernandes, Dias, Santo, and other immigrants who strolled the streets of Honolulu, Madeiran-style, helped to popularize the instrument among Hawaiians who, Lili'uokalani wrote, "have been from time immemorial lovers of music and poetry."83 The patronage of King Kalakaua, leader of the late tgth-century revival of traditional Hawaiian culture, played perhaps the most visible role in popularizing the 'ukulele and fostering its recognition as a native instrument. The earliest evidence of its use in the royal circle can be seen in an 1889 photograph of the king with Robert Louis Stevenson: behind them are ranged the King's Singing Boys (fig. 5), one of whom is playing an 'ukulele.84 The Singing Boys were "that little group that played for him at our suppers and private parties," FIG. 4. 'Ukulele, Guitar and 5-String Taropatch (Photographer: J. J. Williams, Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands, ca. 1890). Hawaii State Archives. A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1 8 3 8 - 1 9 1 5 15 wrote Stevenson's stepdaughter, Isobel Strong, who lived in Hawai'i for seven years (1883—1889) and became a frequent guest at 'Iolani Palace. "There were five of them, the best singers and performers on the ukulele and guitar in the whole islands." 85 As late as 1893, this same group of musicians was still closely identified with the late king. During that year of revolution, visiting Chicago journalist Mary Krout attended a musical program that concluded with "a number given by a native quintette known as King Kalakaua's Singing Boys. Their contribution was a song in Hawaiian, written for the occasion, in which the missionaries and Provisional Government were soundly rated."81' Strong's memoir also provides the only known eyewitness account of Kalakaua himself playing the 'ukulele during late-night gatherings in the palace billiard room: He [Kalakaua] would occasionally pick up a ukulele or a guitar and sing his favorite Hawaiian song, Sweet Lei-lei-hua, and once he electrified us by bursting into FIG. 5. King Kalakaua and Robert Louis Stevenson with The King's Singing Boys accompanied by 'ukulele, 1889, "Iolani Days." Farrington Collection, Hawaii State Archives. l6 THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY Hoky Poky winky wum How do you like your taters done? Boiled or with their jackets on? Sang the King of the Sandwich Islands. 87 Joao Fernandes reported that he, Dias, andJoao Luis Correa often played for Kalakaua in the king's bungalow on the palace grounds: "Lots of people came. Plenty kanakas. Much music, much hula, much kaukau, much drink. All time plenty drink. And King Kalakaua, he pay for all! "88 Christina Dias Gilliland, the oldest of Dias' nine children, said that Kalakaua was a frequent visitor to her father's King Street shop and that Dias "enjoyed being part of the scene at King Kalakaua's court."89 While George Kanahele writes that the 'ukulele was used to accompany hula dances at Kalakaua's 50th birthday jubilee celebration in 1886, an eyewitness account of the November 23 lu'au and hula performance that followed that evening mentions "calabash drums" (ipu) and "rattles made of small gourds filled with pebbles" ('uli'uli) as the only instruments used.90 Another account of a hula performance two years later during a poker party at Healani, Kalakaua's boathouse, described the musical accompaniment as "a troupe of men with guitars."91 Regardless, claims of royal patronage—either implied by the use of the Hawaiian coat of arms on 'ukulele headstocks, used by many makers after 1915, or stated directly in advertising—testify to the commercial importance of the royal seal of approval.92 The first years of the 20th century appear to have been lean ones for 'ukulele sales, despite the instrument's popularity in Hawai'i. From 1901 to 1905, Santo, although working from his home, was the only original manufacturer consistently listed as a guitar maker in Honolulu directories. In 1903, his son, J. E. Santos Jr., is listed as a guitar maker at the same address, 628 Beretania.93 (The senior Santo died suddenly in June 1905 of blood poisoning.94) Nunes was listed as a cabinetmaker in 1902—1903, and also worked out of his home as a guitar maker in 1904 before opening a shop on Beretania in 1905. Dias worked at the Porter Furniture Co. from 1901 through 1903, returning to instrument making at his home the following year. Two A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1838 —1915 17 new competitors, Jose Vierra and Manuel Fernandez, surfaced briefly during this period, but each was listed for just a single year. As the decade drew to a close, however, conditions appear to have improved and competition increased. Dias opened a shop on Union Street in 1907; by 1909, Kaai was advertising himself as "maker of the finest ukuleles in the world." 95 That same year, Nunes announced the opening of M. Nunes 8c Sons in the Kapi'olani building on Alakea Street with sons Julius and Leonardo. 96 In 1911, although Dias had retired as a result of the tuberculosis that eventually would kill him in 1915, three new makers opened up shop in Honolulu: James N. Anahu, Ishiga Sakai, and Jonah Kumalae. 97 Kumalae—politician and former schoolteacher, farmer, and clerk—reportedly began making 'ukuleles as early as 1895 and eventually became one of the most prolific of the early manufacturers. 98 It was during this period that 'ukulele manufacture began to shift from traditional artisanal craftmanship to mass production techniques. The change became apparent as early as 1909, when Nunes advised prospective customers that his 'ukuleles would be made under his direct supervision, rather than by himself personally. 99 By early 1915, Island manufacturers were turning out 500 to 600 'ukuleles a month, according to one estimate. 10° Helping to fuel a new demand for 'ukuleles on the mainland was the convergence of a variety of factors: the annexation of Hawai'i by the United States; the systematic development of the tourist industry; the popular appetite for international expositions; vaudeville; and the birth and growth of the Chautauqua movement and of the recording industry. Annexation and the national political debate that surrounded the issue fostered a new public awareness of the Islands. After the overthrow of the monarchy in 1893, coverage of Hawai'i dramatically increased, not only in weighty journals like The Nation and the North American Review, but in popular magazines like Cosmopolitan, Century, Scribner's, and Lippincott's.101 The business community in Honolulu was quick to exploit the opportunities that annexation, Hawai'i's new visibility, and regular steamship service provided for the fledgling tourist industry. 102 In 1903, the Honolulu Chamber of Commerce and Merchants Association formed the Hawaii Promotion Committee. Backed with both public and private funding, the committee 1O THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY produced a stream of pamphlets and brochures with such titles as Hawaii, the Paradise of the Pacific touting the Islands as a tourist destination and investment opportunity. Santo, Nunes, and Dias were likely no strangers to catering to the tourist trade: tourism was one of Madeira's chief industries in the 19th century, and was credited with keeping the island economy afloat in times of agricultural disaster.104 Ellen Taylor advised tourists in Madeira of current prices for machetes in Funchal in the 1880s; the Bazar do Povo (People's Bazaar) in Funchal advertised the sale of "Violins, Guitars and Machetes" in a 1903 guidebook.105 As the numbers of tourists grew, the 'ukulele came to be regarded as one of the chief souvenirs of a trip to Hawai'i. "The musical instruments peculiar to the islands are the ukulele or taropatch. They are small guitar shaped instruments, made of native woods, hundreds of which are sold to visiting tourists, and are now scattered all over the world," the Hawaiian Almanac and Annual boasted in 1899.106 Three years later, when Mira Jacobus, a young librarian at the Kamehameha Schools, wrote to her sister in Los Angeles to inquire what sort of keepsake she would like, she asked, "Now what would you rather have, a souvenir spoon, an ukulele (little guitar), or another silk waist, or what?"107 Some 'ukulele manufacturers sold not only 'ukuleles but a variety of other souvenirs. In the 1913 Honolulu directory, for example, Jonah Kumalae advertised not only "ukuleles made to order" but also "high grade koa furniture . . . canes, calabashes, trays, plates, [and] fancy ivory and tortoise shell goods."108 At least three years prior, Ernest Kaai saw enough of a market to publish an 'ukulele method book, which was clearly aimed at the tourist trade. For many on the mainland, however, the first exposure to Hawaiian music came at one of the many expositions held in major cities across the country. Although Hawaiian goods were on display at the Centennial Fair in Philadelphia in 1876,109 and again at the New Orleans Exposition in 1885,110 the first time Hawaiian music is known to have been presented appears to have been at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. There, on the Midway between the Chinese Theater and the Ferris Wheel, was the Hawaiian Pavilion containing Lorrin Thurston's cyclorama of the great volcano of Kilauea. ni "In front of the pavilion was a heroic statue of Pele, the Hawaiian goddess of fire, made by Mrs. Copp, the sculptor, and under A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1 8 3 8 - 1 9 1 5 ig the canopy a choir of Kanak [sic] musicians sang to the public, evoking much applause," according to one account. 112 Also performing at the fair was a troupe of four hula dancers and two chanters and musicians, including former Kalakaua court dancer Jennie Wilson, believed to be the first hula dancers to appear on the mainland. 113 Later that year, the cyclorama was shipped west to be exhibited at the San Francisco Midwinter Fair, where music was again a featured part of the program. Fairgoer Phil Weaver, Jr., described how he paid his 50 cents, went in and "listened to the lecture and the sweetest Hawaiian quartet singing in the moonlight among the volcanic rocks of the great Kilauea to the accompaniment of the 'taro-patch fiddle.'"114 Nearby, another visitor described how The stroller along the Midway Plaisance . . . is greeted by no more alluring sound than the sweet strains from the "taro patch fiddle," banjo, and guitar skillfully played by native musicians . . . the soft melody of native airs and songs has awakened more than a transient response in the breasts of our sentimental music lovers and no small number of fair pupils from San Francisco's 'swell set' have been for weeks industriously practicing the 'taro patch fiddle' under the tuition of the dusky player at the Hawaiian Village.115 In 1901, a 10-piece orchestra headed by Mekia Kealakai was dispatched to the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York, to play in the Hawaiian Village on the Midway, next to the "House Upside Down" attraction. 116 Stationed on a platform at the building's entrance, orchestra members, wearing distinctive straw hats and white suits with sashes, played "seductive music" to the crowds outside, providing the "ballyhoo" or come-on to lure passers-by into the building for hula-hula dancing and other delights. 117 A studio portrait of the orchestra taken in Buffalo shows that it included as many as four 'ukuleles. Four years later, the Royal Hawaiian Band played a four-week engagement at the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition in Portland, Oregon, and returned the following year for a troubleplagued tour that took them as far east as Kentucky and as far north as Canada. 118 After the turn of the century, a new generation of Hawaiian musicians—many of whom grew up with the 'ukulele—began to break into vaudeville and Chatauqua circuits on the mainland. Toots Paka's 2O THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY Hawaiians, formed by the non-Hawaiian wife of July Paka, one of the musicians in Kealakai's exposition orchestra, became a successful vaudeville act that by 1909 was regularly featured on the New York stage and in shows such as "The Echo" that traveled to Detroit, Milwaukee, and Chicago.119 With instrumentation that sometimes included guitars, flute, violin, and 'ukulele, Toots Paka's troupe members were "pioneers who paved the way for future recognition of Hawaiian music."120 Other performers, including guitarist Frank Ferera and composer-arranger-pianist Albert R. "Sonny" Cunha, also toured the mainland during the century's first decade.121 Hawaiian music quickly became a staple of the chautauqua circuit. One of the first groups to appear was the Honolulu Students, a six-person group that toured New York state and New England in 1907—1908, playing the guitar, flute, violin, "and the native instruments, 'Ukulele' and 'Taropatch.'"122 In 1910, an unidentified Hawaiian quartet even played at the Taft White House, performing a series of "melodious and mysterious songs and renditions on stringed instruments" for visiting Prince Tsai Tsao of China.123 Hawaiian music's first significant exposure on the mainland coincided with the rise of the fledgling record industry. The first major commercial recordings of Hawaiian music appear to have been made in Honolulu around 1904 by Victor, featuring such artists as Nani Alapai, the Ellis Brothers (William and John), and H. Keaweamahi, backed by flute, guitar, 'ukulele, and possibly violin.124 About the same time, the American Record Co. recorded a series of sides, probably in New York, by a group identified only as the Royal Hawaiian Troubadours, a name later used by Ernest Kaai.125 While entertaining native Hawaiians in Honolulu in June 1907, Charmian and Jack London discovered that "none of our visitors had heard the records of Hawaiian music which we played for them, and clapped their hands over the hulas like joyous children."126 Columbia later conducted its own Honolulu recording sessions and released records by such artists as Kaai, Alapai, and Dan Makaena around 1912.127 Despite such developments, the 'ukulele and Hawaiian music remained sufficiently obscure so that Paradise of the Pacific felt obliged to explain what an 'ukulele was in 1906.128 The following year, when C. F. Martin & Co. experimented with its own line of 'ukuleles—the first attempt by a mainland manufacturer to make and market them A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1 8 3 8 - 1 9 1 5 21 —it failed, "thanks to the little problem that nobody especially wanted ukuleles in 1907."129 Charles H. Ditson & Co.'s Manhattan store advertised "Hawaiian Ukuleles" in March 1910 under the heading of "Odd Musical Instruments," a category of exotica that included Turkish cymbals and Arabian war drums.130 It was not until the play, "Bird of Paradise," appeared on the Broadway stage in January 1912 that Hawaiian music was memorably brought to the attention of large mainland audiences. Set in Hawai'i during the early 1890s, and featuring such spectacular effects as a glowing volcano, "not the least part of the [play's] realistic effect is gained by the employment of a number of native musicians and singers who supply to the action an almost continuous undercurrent of the sweetly plaintive Hawaiian airs and harmony."131 Photos of the Broadway production show a Hawaiian quintet playing Spanish and steel guitars, 'ukulele, and ipu.iy2 After a successful Broadway run, the play spent another 12 years on the road in the United States and Canada as one of the era's most lucrative properties.133 "For years travelers who returned from Hawaii brought stories of the strange and beautiful music that the natives played on their Ukuleles, but it was not until [Richard] Tully's opera 'The Bird of Paradise' was produced that musicians gave any serious attention to the instrument and its music," Edison Phonograph Monthly reported in September 1916.134 Nowhere during this early period did the 'ukulele gain a greater foothold than in California. Because of its proximity to the Islands, and because of San Francisco's role as the chief port of the Pacific seaboard, California long had been Hawai'i's chief point of contact with the mainland. "Bird of Paradise," written by Richard W. Tully, a California native and graduate of the University of California, produced by Los Angeles impresario Oliver Morosco, and backed financially by sugar mogul Claus Spreckels and San Francisco Mayor James D. Phelan, debuted in Los Angeles on September 11, 1911, three months prior to its Broadway opening.135 But the 'ukulele's presence in California dates back to at least 1894, when the "taro patch" made its earliest documented appearance on the mainland at San Francisco's Midwinter Fair. It was the daughter of a Bay Area congressman who entertained Queen Lili'uokalani in Washington by singing the queen's own songs and playing the 'ukulele in 1897.136 The January 1900 issue of the San Francisco-based Overland Monthly contained a 22 THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY short story, "A Hawaiian Expedient," in which a Honolulu hostess relies on her 'ukulele to extricate herself from an embarrassing social predicament.137 In 1912, Charles S. DeLano, a long-time music teacher in Los Angeles, first began to advertise his services as a "teacher of Guitar, Banjo, Mandolin and Ukulele."138 Two years later, Leonardo Nunes, son of Manuel Nunes, appeared in Los Angeles advertising his services as an 'ukulele manufacturer.139 Convinced that there was now a national market for the diminutive instrument, Sears, Roebuck and Co. offered mahogany 'ukuleles in two models, priced at $3.75 and $4.45, in its Fall 1914 catalogue. "The Ukulele is creating a sensation in this country, especially on the Pacific Coast, where it is exceedingly popular," the catalogue copy read. "It is a sweet toned instrument that anyone can learn to play without the aid of a teacher and is especially suitable for vocal accompaniments."140 That same year, three 'ukulele method books appeared on the mainland: Kealakai's Self Instructor for the Ukulele and Taro-Patch Fiddle, published by the Southern California Music Company of Los Angeles; Kia's Self Instructor for the Ukulele and Taro- Patch Fiddle, published in Los Angeles by R. W. Heffelfinger; and N.B. Bailey's A Practical Method for Self Instruction on The Ukulele, published in San Francisco by Sherman, Clay & Co.141 The 'ukulele "has invaded the Pacific Coast states to such an extent that one is sure to hear its soft tones wherever young people congregate. In one university alone there are over one thousand of these charming little instruments," Bailey wrote in his introduction. But it was the Hawaiian presence at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco in 1915 that launched a national craze for Hawaiian music and the 'ukulele, (fig. 6) Hawai'i was represented by a substantial building of its own in a prime location on the Esplanade, opposite the California Building and the Fine Arts Palace and directly north of the Baker Street entrance.142 In the center of the main hall was a clump of palms and tree ferns, where the house band, the Royal Hawaiian Quartette, led by guitarist George E.K. Awai, played and accompanied hula dances.143 Though small, the Hawaiian building proved one of the most popular attractions among the record 17 million visitors to the fair.144 Large crowds were also entertained by musicians in the Hawaiian Gardens in the Horticultural Building, where free samples of pineapple and other Hawai- A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1 8 3 8 - 1 9 1 5 23 ian products were served. Author Laura Ingalls Wilder was among the fairgoers who dropped by. She described the large pavilion where Hawaiian coffee and pineapple juice and salad and other combinations of pineapple are served at little tables. There is a fountain in the center and water vines and shrubs and flowers FIG. 6. Hawaiian Quintet featuring Henry Kailimai (center), Hawaiian Building, Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco, Ca., 1915. Hawaii State Archives. 24 THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY around the fountain's rim. The fountain and a little space are enclosed with golden ropes and there are marble pedestals inside with canaries in cages on them. At one side is a balcony where a Hawaiian band plays and sings their native songs, which are lovely. The canaries have heard the music so long that at certain places they take up the tune and sing an accompaniment. It is beautiful. The waiters are Hawaiian men and girls and it's a delightful place to sit and rest, listen to the music and sip either coffee or delicious pineapple juice.145 However, it was the Hawaiian Building on the Esplanade that made the biggest impression on fairgoers. 146 Among the visitors was New York musician and singer Irving Fisher, founder of the Musical Murrays, who was initially struck by the fresh-faced, zoftig hula girls in their little grass skirts. But I was— in my present mood—more taken by the haunting and yet bouncy sound of a shrunken guitar that I soon learned is call the 'ukulele.' An orchestra of these joyous instruments backed the undulating hula girls and the combination of the wobble of sounds with the shaking of hips was intoxicating.147 Fisher introduced himself to composer, singer, and musician Henry Kailimai, after hearing him sing his hit song, "On the Beach at Waikiki," and was introduced to Jonah Kumalae, Leonardo Nunes, and Ernest Kaai, the last of whom Fisher says gave him a crash course in how to play the 'ukulele. The effect on Fisher was profound. Hawaiian music was about to be the latest fad, I felt sure. So I needed to get some new girls, the right songs, a few short skirts, some chocolate-colored pancake make-up—and, of course, a whole heap of ukuleles. I soon found out that they came in many sizes and that already there were American companies manufacturing them. This was the fad of the hour, and I had to catch the wave before it broke and I'd be washed up.148 The Panama-Pacific International Exposition proved to be a watershed event. 'Ukulele production among Hawaiian manufacturers soared from an estimated 500 to 600 per month in August 1915 to 1,600 one year later, and was unable to keep up with the demand, as Fisher's colleagues in New York began cranking out such pseudo- A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1 8 3 8 - 1 9 1 5 25 Hawaiian fare as "Yacka Hula Hickey Dula" and "Oh, How She Could Yacki Hacki Wicki Wacki Woo." 149 "Two years ago, what did the public know about Hawaiian Music, Ukuleles, Hula Hula Dances?" Edison Phonograph Monthly asked in September 1916. "Since then Hawaiian music and American versions of it have taken the United States by storm." 150 And yet such dramatic success, which in a single generation transformed the 'ukulele from an immigrant novelty into an instantly recognizable symbol of Hawaiian culture, proved to be a mixed blessing. As early as September 1915, three months before the Panama-Pacific International Exposition closed its doors, Hawaiian manufacturers were complaining that mainland companies were fraudulently passing off their 'ukuleles as island-made. 151 Two years later, the Hawaii Promotion Committee issued another plaintive—and vain—protest: Hawaiian music, as it is composed and sold here is Hawaiian music at its best, and no one will have any apologies to make for its quality. But the managers of the East have changed much of the spirit of the songs, and Hawaii is not going to benefit by it.152 NOTES 1 George S. Kanahele, ed., Hawaiian Music and Musicians: An Illustrated History (Honolulu: U P of Hawaii, 1979) ix. 2 Harvey Turnbull, The Guitar: From the Renaissance to the Present Day (London: Batsford, 1974) 1. 3 John King, The Hawaiian Ukulele & Guitar Makers as Listed in the Honolulu City Directory and Other Contemporary Sources For the Years 1884 to 1930 (St. Petersburg: NALU Music, 2001). 4 These include "How the Ukulele Came to Hawaii," PP, 35 (Jan. 1922): 8-10; Helen H. Roberts, Ancient Hawaiian Music (Honolulu: BPBM, 1926) 9-10; Elma T. Cabral, "Grandpa Was a Troubadour," PP, 58 (Dec. 1946) 17-20; Samuel H. Elbert and Edgar C. Knowlton, "Ukulele," American Speech, 32 (Dec. 1957) 307-310; and John H. Felix, Leslie Nunes, and Peter F. Senecal, The 'Ukulele: A Portuguese Gift to Hawaii (Honolulu: Published by the authors, 1980) 1-5. 5 See George Kia, Self Instructorfor the Ukulele and Taw-Patch Fiddle (Los Angeles: R.W. Heffelfinger, 1914) 4; Ernest K. Kaai, The Ukulele and How Its Played (Honolulu: Hawaiian News Co., 1916) 8; E. N. Guckert, Guckert's Chords for the Ukulele at Sight (Chicago: Lyon & Healy, 1917) 2. 6 Augustus Marques, "Music in Hawaii Nei," HAA (Honolulu: Thos. G. Thrum, 26 THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY 1886) 58. Marques, born in France of an English mother, studied at the University of Paris and taught music at Punahou School before becoming editor of 0 Luso. [Charles S. Bouslog, "Dr. Auguste Jean Baptiste and Evelyn Oliver Marques," HJH, 26 (1992) 157-164.] 7 Charmian Kittredge London, Our Haxvaii (New York: Macmillan, 1917) 94. 8 The word braguinha first appears in Hawai'i in an advertisement for Honoka'a instrument maker Joao Maria Soares in the May 1917 issue of 0 Luso. 9 Margaret S. Rolt, ed. A Great-Niece's Journals, Being Extracts From the Journals of Fanny Anne Burney (Mrs. Wood) from 1830 to 1842 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1926) 291. 10 John A. Dix, A Winter in Madeira and a Summer in Spain and Florence (New York: D. Appleton, 1853) 71-73. 1 ' "Emigracao," in Fernando Augusto da Silva and Carlos Azevedo de Menezes, eds., Elucidario Madeirense, vol. I (Funchal: Tipografia "Esperanca," 1921) 345-346; Alberto Vieira, "Emigration from the Portuguese Islands in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century: The Case of Madeira," in David Higgs, ed., Portuguese Migration in Global Perspective (Toronto: Multicultural History Society of Ontario, 1980) 42-58. 12 Henry Dalton, The History of British Guiana, vol. I (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1855) 457. 13 Ralph S. Kuykendall, The Hawaiian Kingdom, vol. III, 1874—1893, The Kalakaua Dynasty (Honolulu: U of Hawaii P, 1967) 124. 14 Livro de Matricula de Cidadanos Portuguezes, Consulado Geral de Portugal em Hawaii, entries 185, 170, and 193, Aug. 22, 1879. 15 T. Bentley Duncan, Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores and the Cape Verdes in Seventeenth Century Commerce and Navigation (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1972) 10; Peter Russell, Prince Henry 'the Navigator': A Life (New Haven: Yale U P, 2002) 87-89. 16 Rolt, Great-Niece's Journals 271; Isabella de Franca, Journal of a Visit to Madeira and Portugal, 1853—1854 (Funchal: Junta Geral do Distrito Autonomo de Funchal, 1969) 64. 17 Ellen M. Taylor, Madeira: Its Scenery, And How to See It (London: Edward Stanford, 1889) 77. 18 "How the Ukulele Came to Hawaii," PP, 35 (Jan. 1922) 8; Bob Krauss, "Hula hoops and ukes," HA Aug. 30, 1979: A3. 19 Mr. James Hackett to Gov. Light, July 5, 1841, in Papers Relative to the West Indies and British Guiana 1841-42, cited in Mary Noel Menezes, The Portuguese of Guyana: A Study in Culture and Conflict (np, 1993) 23. 20 "Portuguese Musicians," HG, Sept. 3, 1879: 3. 21 Of the 124 heads of family and single men aboard the Ravenscrag reported in the Livro de Matricula, a total of 68, or 55 percent, were from the Funchal parishes of Sao Roque, Sao Pedro, Sao Antonio, Se, Santa Luzia, Santa Maria Maior, Monte, Sao Martinho, or Sao Goncalo. 22 Breve Noticia Acerca das Ilhas de Sandwich e das vantagens que ellas offerecem a emi- A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1838—1915 27 gracdo que as procure (Funchal: Typographia Liberal, 1878) 11. Compare with average daily wages of 70 to 100 reis for skilled workers just prior to World W a r I [Elucidario Madeirense, II: 4 0 9 - 4 1 0 . ] 23 "More Portuguese," PCA, Sept. 27, 1879: 3. 24 Irving J e n k i n s , Hawaiian Furniture and Hawaii's Cabinetmakers 1820—1940 (Honolulu: Daughters of Hawaii, 1983) 93, 138; Frederick Bagot, ed. McKenney's Hawaiian Directory Including a City Directory of Honolulu, and Hand Book of the Kingdom of Hawaii (San Francisco: L. M. McKenney, 1884) 8 3 , 102, 107, 110, 132, 134, 181, 2 0 5 , 214, 2 2 2 , 2 4 6 , iiii. 25 Larry Ikeda, "Ukulele from t h e P o r t u g u e s e , " Maui Today (Feb. 1977): 7. 26 Testimony of Caroline T r a n q u a d a , Petition for t h e Registration of t h e Hawaiian Birth of Charles Francis Gilliland ( 2 6 Nov. 1947), Application 2 7 5 8 7 , Office of t h e Secretary of Hawaii; Tax Assessment a n d Collection Ledgers (224-2-1880) vol. 2, District of Hilo: 9 1 . 27 Roberts, Ancient Hawaiian Music 9 - 1 0 . 28 For Octavianno a n d J o a o N u n e s , see Carlos M. Santos, Trovas e Bailados da Ilha: Estudo do Foclore Musical da Madeira (Funchal: Edicao da Delegacao de T u r i s m o d a M a d e i r a , 1939) 1 5 - 2 2 , a n d R e n e V a n n e s , Dictionnaire universel des luthiers, vol. I (Brussels: Les Amis d e la m u s i q u e , 1972) 2 5 9 ; for A u g u s t o d a Costa a n d A n t o n i o Q u i n t a l , see V a n n e s , Dictionnaire universel I: 6 8 , 2 9 0 ; for Telles a n d d e M e n e z e s , see Taylor, Madeira, 3 0 . 29 M a n u e l N u n e s , passport application, e m i g r a t i o n file N o . 3 1 6 (1879), Arquivo Regional d a Madeira, ARM; Jose d o Espirito Santo, passport application, emigration file N o . 3 0 2 (1879), ARM; Augusto Dias, passport application, emigration file 105 (1879), ARM. 30 The classic American example of cabinetmaker turned instrument maker is Christian Frederick Martin (1796-1873), founder of C. F. Martin & Co. 31 Bagot, McKenney's Hawaiian Directory (1884) 113. 32 " ' O l d e s t ' Ukulele T u r n s U p , " HA, May 19, 1956: A 8 . 33 Bagot, McKenney's Hawaiian Directory (1884) 188; Jenkins, Hawaiian Furniture 141, 145-146. 34 J e n k i n s , Hawaiian Furniture 147. 35 Jenkins, Hawaiian Furniture 150-151. 36 0 Luso Hawaiiano, A u g . 15 , 1 8 8 5 . 37 O Luso Hawaiiano, July 15, 1886. 38 Richard A. Greer, "'Sweet and Clean': The Chinatown Fire of 1886," HJH, 10 (1970) 33-51. John Brown vs. Dias and Dos Santos, filed A p r . 1 5 , 1887 , L a w 2 4 9 7 , First C i r c u i t Court Series 006, Judiciary of Hawai'i, AH. Thanks to Lydia Guzman for finding this file. 40 Kanahele, Hawaiian Music 339. 41 J. C. Lane, ed., Hawaiian Directory and Hand Book of the Kingdom of Hawaii (San Francisco: McKenney Directory, 1888) 316. 42 Lane, Hawaiian Directory (1888) 207, 338. 39 28 THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY 43 Lane, Hawaiian Directory (1888) unpaginated advertisements. 44 M e k i a ( M a j o r ) K e a l a k a i , Self Instructor for the Ukulele and Taw-Patch Fiddle ( L o s 45 A s h Slivers, Sr., The Land of the O-O. Facts, Figures, Fables, and Fancies ( C l e v e l a n d : Angeles: Southern California Music, 1914) and Kia, Self Instructor. Cleveland Printing & Publishing, 1892) 96; Albert A. Stanley, Catalogue of the Stearns Collection of Musical Instruments (Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1918) 161. 46 S i d n e y Colvin, e d . , The Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson, vol. III ( N e w York: Scribner's, 1915) 144. 47 PP (Feb. 1906): 11. 48 N a t h a n i e l E m e r s o n , Unwritten Literature of Hawaii: The Sacred Songs of the Hula (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1909) 251. 49 Lorin Tarr Gill, "Portuguese Were First to Introduce Ukulele In Hawaii Says Miss Roberts," HA, Aug. 10, 1924: Magazine: 3. 50 Taylor, Madeira 3 0 , 6 3 . 51 P. d e Vakeel, "Alguns t r a c o s d e h i s t o r i a d a Musica d a M a d e i r a , " Gazeta de Madeira, 2 7 F e b . 1869, r e p r i n t e d in Revista das Aries e da Historia da Madeira, v. 3 (1957) 36. 52 A n d r e s d e S o t o s , Arte Para Aprender Con Facilidad, y sin Maestro, a templar a taner rasgado La Guitarra ... y tambien el Tiple ( M a d r i d : L o p e z y c o m p a n i a , 1 7 6 0 ) 6 1 - 6 3 ; E r n e s t o V e i g a d e O l i v e i r a , Instrumentos Musicais Populares Portugueses (Lisbon: Fundacao Calouste Gulbenkian, 1966) 141. 53 E r n e s t K. K a a i , The Ukulele: A Hawaiian Guitar, and How to Play It [ R e v i s e d Edition] (Honolulu: Wall, Nichols Co., 1910) 4. Originally published in 1906 and catalogued by Amy Stillman in the 1980s, no copy of the 1906 edition is known to survive. A 1909 tutor in the collection of Tom Walsh, T. H. Rollinson, ed., Method for the Ukulele (Hawaiian Guitar) (Boston: Oliver Ditson Co.) is p r o b a b l y b a s e d o n m a t e r i a l from t h e Kaai original. 54 Lady E m m e l i n e Stuart Wortley, A Visit to Portugal and Madeira (London: Chapman and Hall, 1854) 233; Robert White and James Yate Johnson, Madeira: Its Climate and Scenery. (Edinburgh: Adam & Charles Black, 1856) 77-78. 55 M i c h a e l ' a n g e l o L a m b e r t i n i , " P o r t u g a l , " in Encyclopedie de la Musique L i b r a i r i e D e l a g r a v e , 1920) 2 4 6 6 ; Veiga d e Oliveira, Instrumentos (Paris: Musicais 141. 56 A. A . S a n t o s , a n d A n g e l i n e N u n e s . Original Method and Self-Instructior 57 "Doc" A d a m s , "Old F i s h e r m a n Tells H o w Steel Guitar O r i g i n a t e d ; Also H o w on the Ukulele ( H o n o l u l u : Santos-Nunes Studios, 1915) 3 . U k u l e l e G o t N a m e , " HA, J a n . 2 4 , 1932: 5; first cited in K a n a h e l e , Music Hawaiian 395. 58 O r i g i n a l in t h e possession of William Voiers. 59 H e l e n M a t h e r , One Summer in Hawaii 60 "Sunday in H o n o l u l u , " The Hawaiian, (New York: Cassell, 1891) 1 5 9 - 1 6 0 . F e b . - M a r . 1896, cited in Jay Scott Odell, "Ukulele," in Stanley Sadie, ed., The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol. 19 (London: MacMillan, 1980) 323. A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1 8 3 8 - 1 9 1 5 61 29 Gurre Ploner Noble, Hula Blues: The Story of Johnny Noble, Hawaii, Its Music and Musicians (Honolulu: Tongg, 1948) 10. 62 Glenn E. Haas, P. Quentin Tomich, Nixon Wilson, "The Flea in Early Hawai'i," HJH, 5 ( 1 9 7 0 : 5 9 - 6 1 . 63 L o r r i n A n d r e w s , A Dictionary of the Hawaiian Language (Tokyo: C h a r l e s E. Tuttle, 1980 [facsimile of the 1865 edition]) 119; Hiram Bingham, A Residence of Twenty-One Years in the Sandwich Islands . . . (Canadaigua: H.D. Goodwin, 1855 [3rd edition]) 176. 64 J a c k L o n d o n , The Cruise of the Snark (New York: M a c M i l l a n , 1932) 1 1 3 . 65 Kaai, The Ukulele 1. 66 Gill, "Portuguese Were First," HA, Aug. 10, 1924: Mag. 3. 67 K u y k e n d a l l , Hawaiian Kingdom III: 3 4 6 . 68 Kuykendall, Hawaiian Kingdom III: 346-347. 69 F (Sept. 1888): 74. 70 F. M. H u s t e d , c o m p . , Husted's Directory and Hand-Book of Honolulu and the Hawaiian Islands . . . (San Francisco: Hawaiian Gazette, 1898) 65, 208, 210. 71 Jenkins, Hawaiian Furniture3;William Alanson Bryan, Natural History of Hawaii (Honolulu: Hawaiian Gazette Co., 1915) 211. 72 Jenkins, Hawaiian Furniture 225-227. 73 J e n k i n s , Hawaiian Furniture xi. 74 L e e Meriwether, The Tramp At Home, (NY: H a r p e r & B r o t h e r s , 1889) 2 6 4 . 75 L i l i ' u o k a l a n i , Hawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen ( B o s t o n : L o t h r o p , L e e & S h e p ard, i8g8) 342. 76 BPBM 1 9 6 7 . 2 8 9 . 0 6 , cited in R o g e r G. Rose, Hawai'i: The Royal Isles ( H o n o lulu: BPBM, 1980) 1 7 3 . 77 Slivers, Land of the O-O 9 7 . 78 R e a r - A d m . L. A . B e a r d s l e e ( r e t . ) , "Pilikias," North American Review, 1 6 7 ( O c t . 1898): 479. 79 C l a r e n c e E. Glick, Sojourners and Settlers: Chinese Migrants in Hawaii ( H o n o lulu: U P of Hawaii, 1980) 6 7 , 1 2 3 . 80 I n r e Estate of J o s e d o Espirito Santo, File 3 7 8 1 ( 1 9 0 5 ) , P r o b a t e Division, First Circuit Court, Territory of Hawaii. 81 Kuykendall, Hawaiian Kingdom III: 57-58. 82 Archibald Cary Coolidge, "First Impressions of the Hawaiian Islands," The Nation, 65 (30 Sept. 1897): 259. 83 L i l i ' u o k a l a n i , Hawaii's Story 30. 84 Photo 100, "Iolani Days" Photo Album 87B, Wallace R. Farrington Collection, AH. 85 Isobel Field, This Life I've Loved (New York: L o n g m a n ' s , G r e e n , 1937) 1 7 5 . 86 Mary Krout, Hawaii and a Revolution ( L o n d o n : J o h n Murray, 1898) 1 4 2 . 87 Field, This Life 1 7 5 . 88 PP, 35 (Jan. 1922) 9. 89 "Aunt Tina of Kailua Helped Kalakaua Direct Making of Island's First Uke," Pali Press July 31, 1963. 30 THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY 90 K a n a h e l e , Hawaiian Music 3 9 5 ; W i l m a J a m e s , "Hawaii's Last King," Pacific Historian, 2 4 (Fall 1980) 3 1 4 - 3 1 5 . 91 M e r i w e t h e r , Tramp 2 7 7 . 92 N u n e s advertised that his ukuleles were "Patronized by t h e Royal Hawaiian Family" in t h e 1916 Polk-Husted Directory of Honolulu [ 1 3 1 ] ; his ads c o m p e t e d with those of t h e Hawaiian Ukulele Co., which claimed its "Royal Ukuleles Have n o S u p e r i o r in T o n e o r Popularity." [ 1 2 1 ] . 93 F. M. Husted, ed. Husted's Directory of Honolulu and Territory of Hawaii (Honolulu: F. M. Husted, 1903) 3 4 0 . 94 "Local Brevities," PCA, J u n e 11, 1905: 12. 93 Husted's Directory of Honolulu and the Territory of Hawaii 1908 (Honolulu: Polk Husted, 1908). Advertisements are unpaginated. 96 PCA, D e c . 29, 1909: 1 1 . 97 Polk-Husted Directory Co.'s Directory of Honolulu and the Territory of Hawaii, 1911 (Honolulu: Polk-Husted, 1911) 124, 608, 1057. 98 J o h n W i l l i a m S i d d a l l , e d . , Men of Hawaii: A Biographical Reference Library, vol. II (Honolulu: Star-Bulletin, 1921) 241; Karen S. Drozd, The Hawaiian 'Ukulele: its players, makers, teachers and continuity in traditional transmission processes (MA thesis, U of Hawai'i, 1998; Ann Arbor: UMI Dissertation Services, 1999) 99. " P C A , Dec. 29, 1909: 11. 100 "Industry Enriches Hawaii," New York Times, Oct. 15, 1916: VIII, 6. 101 The number of articles on Hawai'i cataloged in Poole's Index to Periodical Literature increased more than five-fold from the 1887-1892 volume (14 items) to the 1892-1896 period (72 items). 102 John D. Spreckels, "Hawaii for Tourists," Overland Monthly, 25 (June 1895) 661. 103 David Farber and Beth Bailey, "The Fighting Man as Tourist: The Politics of Tourist Culture During World War II," Pacific Historical Review, 65 (Nov. 1996) 4; National Union Catalog Pre-1956 Imprints (London: Mansell, 1972) 235: 417. 104 Dix, Winter in Madeira 104. 105 Taylor, Madeira 3 0 , 2 3 4 ; A. S a m l e r B r o w n , Brown's Madeira, Canary Islands and Azores: A Practical and Complete Cuidefor the Use of Tourists and Invalids ( L o n d o n : Sampson, Low, Marston, 1903) 17. 106 Wray Taylor, "Musical Status of Hawaii," HAA, 1899 (Honolulu: Thos. G. Thrum, 1898) 166. 107 Miranda Jacobus to Vinia Jacobus, Apr. 29, 1902, original in the possession of Jim Tranquada. 108 Polk-Husted Directory Co. 's Directory of Honolulu and the Territory of Hawaii, 1913. (Honolulu: Polk-Husted, 1913) 446. 109 Jenkins, Hawaiian Furniture 143-144. 110 The National Union Catalog Pre-1956 Imprints (235: 427) lists a pamphlet, The Hawaiian Exhibit at the World's Exposition, New Orleans, published by the Hawaiian Islands Commission to the New Orleans Exhibition. A NEW HISTORY OF THE 'UKULELE, 1 8 3 8 - 1 9 1 5 111 112 31 The Dream City: A Portfolio of Photographic Views of the World's Columbian Exposition, vol. I (St. Louis: N.D. Thompson, n.d.) Plate g; Kuykendall, Hawaiian Kingdom III: 534, 620. The Dream City I: Plate g. An illustrated pamphlet from the Chicago World's Fair, recently discovered by Michael Simmons, identifies the "Kanak musicians " as Keoui Maipinepine, Keoui Elemeni, A. O. East Kahualualii, and Nulhama Aeko. Known collectively as "The Volcano Singers," they are pictured accompanying themselves with two Spanish guitars, five-string taropatch and 'ukulele. 113 Joann Wheeler Kealiinohomoku, "A Court Dancer Disagrees With Emerson's Classic Book on the Hula," Ethnomusicology, 8 (May 1964) 161. 114 Phil Weaver, Jr., "Going With the Swim," Overland Monthly, 23 (Apr. 1894) 417. 115 "The Hawaiian Village at the Midwinter Fair," PP, 7 (July 1894) 87. 116 Kanahele, Hawaiian Music 2og-210, 275; "The Diary," an anonymous account of a visit to the Pan-American Exposition, posted at <http://www.buffalonet.org/opus/docs/history.html/> 117 "The Diary"; Thomas Fleming, Around the "Pan" with Uncle Hank: His Trip Through the Pan-American Exposition (NY: Nutshell Publishing, 1901) 32-33, 35. 118 David W. Bandy, "Bandmaster Henry Berger and the Royal Hawaiian Band." HJH 24: 75-78. 119 Kanahele, Hawaiian Music 388-390; New York Times, June 6, 1909: X: g; Feb. 16, 1910: 18; Apr. g, 1910: 11; Aug. 21, 1910: X: 5. 120 HSB Sept. 1935, quoted in Kanahele, Hawaiian Music 389. 121 Tim Gracyk and Frank Hoffman, Popular American Recording Pioneers 18951925. (New York: Haworth Press, 2002) 118-120; Kanahele, Hawaiian Music 68-70. Cunha's father, Emanuel S. Cunha (1851-1918), proprietor of the Union Saloon in Honolulu, married Angela Eva Gilliland (1859-1922), older sister of Frank C. Gilliland (1862-1893), the husband of Christina Dias (1867-1967), the oldest daughter of Augusto Dias. 122 The Honolulu Students:fromthe Hawaiian Islands (Rochester: Central Printing & Engraving, n.d. [ca. 1909]). Redpath Chautauqua Collection, Special Collections, U of Iowa. 123 Elsie K. Kirk, Music at the White House: A History of American Spirit. ( U r b a n a : U of Illinois P, 1986) 190. 124 L. E. Anderson and T. Malcolm Rockwell, "Hawaiian Recordings: The Early Years." Victrola and 78 Journal, 7 (Winter 1996): 3; personal communication from T. Malcolm Rockwell, Apr. 30, 2002. 125 Anderson and Rockwell, "Hawaiian Recordings" 1-2. 126 London, Our Hawaii 102 127 Anderson and Rockwell, "Hawaiian Recordings" 3-4. 128 PP (Feb. 1906): 11. 129 J i m W a s h b u r n a n d R i c h a r d J o h n s t o n , Martin of America's Premier Guitarmaker Guitars: An Illustrated ( E m m a u s : R o d a l e P r e s s , 1997) 8 6 . Celebration 32 THE HAWAIIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY 130 New York Times, M a r . 19, 1910: 2. 131 Life Magazine, Jan. 18, 1912. 132 T h e New York Times' p i c t o r i a l s e c t i o n of J a n . 2 1 , 1 9 1 2 , c o n t a i n s a p h o t o t h a t shows the quintet with their instruments. 133 H e l e n M o r o s c o a n d L e o n a r d D u g g e r , e d s . , Life of Oliver Morosco, the Oracle of Broadway (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton, 1944) 184; Gerald Bordman, The Oxford 134 135 136 137 138 Companion to the American Theater ( N e w York: O x f o r d U P , 1 9 8 4 ) 8 1 . C i t e d i n Gracyk, Recording Pioneers 1 1 9 . Life of Oliver Morosco 1 8 0 - 1 8 4 , 194; J o h n H u t c h e n s , " ' T h e Bird of P a r a d i s e ' O n A n Eighteen-Year F r o n t , " Nero York Times, A p r . 6, 1930: 120. "Hawaii's E x - Q u e e n ' s C o n c e r t , " Nerv York Times, F e b . 5, 1897: 1. Jessie Kaufman, "A Hawaiian Expedient," Overland Monthly, 25 (Jan. 1900): 17. Los Angeles City Directory, 1912. ( L o s A n g e l e s : L o s A n g e l e s D i r e c t o r y C o . , 1 9 1 3 ) 464. 139 Los Angeles City Directory, 1914. ( L o s A n g e l e s : L o s A n g e l e s D i r e c t o r y C o . , 1 9 1 4 ) 1727. Leonardo Nunes is listed as an 'ukulele manufacturer in Los Angeles through 1929. 140 Sears, Roebuck And Co. Catalogue #129, Fall 1914: 1 1 3 0 . 141 Bailey's method book was later reprinted with a new cover and title page that included "banjo ukulele" in the title; all other content was reprinted unaltered. 142 B e n M a c o m b e r , The Jeiuel City: Its Planning and Achievements; Its Architecture, Sculpture, Symbolism, and Music; Its Gardens, Palaces and Exhibits ( S a n F r a n c i s c o : 143 144 145 John H. Williams, 1915) 29-31. Macomber, fewel City 177; Kanahele, Hawaiian Music 290-291. M a c o m b e r , fewel City 1 7 7 . R o g e r L e a M c B r i d e , e d . , West From Home: Letters of Laura Ingalls Wilder to Almanzo Wilder, San Francisco 1915 (New York: H a r p e r & Row, 1974) 8 2 - 8 3 . 146 There was a Hawaiian Village on the Zone, the P. P. I. E. midway, but it "was hardly representative and executed a meager program . . . without the really beautiful and interesting things of island life it had no drawing power." [Frank Morton Todd, The Story of the Exposition, vol. II (New York: G. P. Putnam's, 1921) 352.] 147 Irving Fisher, "The Titanic, The Ukulele, and Me," Typed MS, Huntington Library, cited in Ian Whitcomb, Ukulele Heaven (Pacific: Mel Bay, 1999) 14-15. 148 Whitcomb, Ukulele Heaven 14-15. 149 "Industry Enriches Hawaii," New York Times, Oct. 15, 1916: VII: 6 150 151 Edison Phonograph Monthly (Sept. 1916), c i t e d i n Gracyk, Recording Pioneers 1 19. "Hawaiians Are Angry," New York Times, Sept. 19, 1915: II: 10. 152 Virgil Jordan, "The Yarn of the Ukulele," Everybody's Magazine, 36 (Mar. 1917) 334-