Abstract
Plastics debris in the marine environment, including resin pellets, fragments and microscopic plastic fragments, contain organic contaminants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, petroleum hydrocarbons, organochlorine pesticides (2,2′-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane, hexachlorinated hexanes), polybrominated diphenylethers, alkylphenols and bisphenol A, at concentrations from sub ng g–1 to µg g–1. Some of these compounds are added during plastics manufacture, while others adsorb from the surrounding seawater. Concentrations of hydrophobic contaminants adsorbed on plastics showed distinct spatial variations reflecting global pollution patterns. Model calculations and experimental observations consistently show that polyethylene accumulates more organic contaminants than other plastics such as polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride. Both a mathematical model using equilibrium partitioning and experimental data have demonstrated the transfer of contaminants from plastic to organisms. A feeding experiment indicated that PCBs could transfer from contaminated plastics to streaked shearwater chicks. Plasticizers, other plastics additives and constitutional monomers also present potential threats in terrestrial environments because they can leach from waste disposal sites into groundwater and/or surface waters. Leaching and degradation of plasticizers and polymers are complex phenomena dependent on environmental conditions in the landfill and the chemical properties of each additive. Bisphenol A concentrations in leachates from municipal waste disposal sites in tropical Asia ranged from sub µg l–1 to mg l–1 and were correlated with the level of economic development.
References
-
Ahrens M. J., Hertz J., Lamoureux E. M., Lopez G. R., McElroy A. E.& Brownawell B. J. . 2001 The role of digestive surfactants in determining bioavailability of sediment-bound hydrophobic organic contaminants to 2 deposit-feeding polychaetes. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 212, 145–157. (doi:10.3354/meps212145). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Ali L. N., Mantoura R. F.& Rowland S. J. . 1995 The dissolution and photodegradation of Kuwaiti crude oil in seawater. Part 2: a laboratory photodegradation apparatus and photodegradation kinetics of a model seawater soluble hydrocarbon (phenanthrene). Mar. Environ. Res. 40, 319–335. (doi:10.1016/0141-1136(94)00149-J). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Asakura H., Matsuto T.& Tanaka N. . 2004 Behavior of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in leachate from MWS landfill sites in Japan. Waste Manag. 24, 613–622. (doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2004.02.004). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Baird R. W.& Hooker S. K. . 2000 Ingestion of plastic and unusual prey by a juvenile porpoise. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 40, 719–720. (doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(00)00051-5). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Barnes D. K. A., Galgani F., Thompson R. C.& Barlaz M. . 2009 Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 1985–1998. (doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0205). Link, ISI, Google Scholar -
Batt J. M. . 2006 The world of organotin chemicals: applications, substituents, and the environment. Organotin Environmental Program Association (ORTEPA). See http://ortepa.org/WorldofOrganotinChemicals.pdf. Google Scholar -
Bauer M. J.& Herrmann R. . 1998 Dissolved organic carbon as the main carrier of phthalic acid esters in municipal landfill leachates. Waste Manag. Res. 16, 446–454. (doi:10.1177/0734242X9801600507). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Bauer M. J., Hermann R., Martin A.& Zellmann H. . 1998 Chemodynamics, transport behaviour and treatment of phthalic acid esters in municipal landfill leachates. Water Sci. Technol. 38, 185–192. Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Berens A. R. . 1989 Sorption of organic liquids and vapors by rigid PVC. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 37, 901–913. (doi:10.1002/app.1989.070370405). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Björn A. . 2007 Microbial transformation of organotin compounds under simulated landfill conditions (Diss.). Linköping Studies in Arts and Science no. 415, Linköping University, Sweden. Google Scholar -
Björn A., Hörsing M., Karlsson A., Mersiowsky I.& Ejlertsson J. . 2007 Impacts of temperature on the leaching of organotin compounds from poly(vinyl chloride) plastics—a study conducted under simulated landfill conditions. J. Vinyl Addit. Technol. 13, 176–188. (doi:10.1002/vnl.20131). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Boyer R. F. . 1951 Relation of tensile strength to brittle temperature in plasticized polymers. J. Appl. Phys. 12, 723–728. Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Brandup J., Immergnt E. H.& Grulke E. A. . 1989 Polymer handbook, p. 206. New York, NY: Wiley. Google Scholar -
Brusseau M. L., Jessup R. E.& Rao P. S. C. . 1991 Nonequilibrium sorption of organic chemicals: elucidation of rate-limiting processes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 25, 134–142. (doi:10.1021/es00013a015). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Cadée G. C. . 2002 Seabirds and floating plastic debris. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 44, 1294–1295. (doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00264-3). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Carpenter E. J., Anderson S. J., Harvey G. R., Miklas H. P.& Peck B. B. . 1972 Polystyrene spherules in coastal waters. Science 178, 749–750. (doi:10.1126/science.178.4062.749). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Carter M. C., Kilduff J. E.& Weber W. J. . 1995 Site energy distribution analysis of preloaded adsorbents. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29, 1773–1780. (doi:10.1021/es00007a013). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Chiou C. T.& Kile D. E. . 1998 Deviations from sorption linearity on soils of polar and nonpolar organic compounds at low relative concentrations. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32, 338–343. (doi:10.1021/es970608g). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Cobelo-Garcia A., Turner A., Millward G. E.& Couceiro F. . 2007 Behaviour of palladium(II), platinum(IV), and rhodium(III) in artificial and natural waters: influence of reactor surface and geochemistry on metal recovery. Anal. Chim. Acta 585, 202–210. Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Colton J. B., Knapp F. D.& Burns B. R. . 1974 Plastic particles in surface waters of the Northwestern Atlantic. Science 185, 491–497. (doi:10.1126/science.185.4150.491). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Coors A., Jones P. D., Giesy J. P.& Ratte H. T. . 2003 Removal of estrogenic activity from municipal waste landfill leachate assessed with a bioassay based on reporter gene expression. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37, 3430–3434. (doi:10.1021/es0300158). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Deng L., Liu Y., Chen P., Wang L.& Deng N. . 2006 Determination of trace bisphenol A in leachate by solid phase microextraction coupled with high performance liquid chromatography. Anal. Lett. 39, 395–404. (doi:10.1080/00032710500477183). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Derraik J. G. B. . 2002 The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 44, 842–852. (doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00220-5). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Desbrow C., Routledge E. J., Brighty G. C., Sumpter J. P.& Waldock M. . 1998 Identification of estrogenic chemicals in STW effluent. 1. Chemical fractionation and in vitro biological screening. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32, 1549–1558. (doi:10.1021/es9707973). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Di Toro D. M., 1991 Technical basis for establishing sediment quality criteria for nonionic organic chemicals using equilibrium partitioning. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 10, 1541–1583. (doi:10.1897/1552-8618(1991)10[1541:TBFESQ]2.0.CO;2). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Earth Trends Country Profiles. 2007 See http://earthtrends.wri.org/country_profiles/index.php?theme=5. Google Scholar
-
Ejlertsson J., Nilsson M. L., Kylin H., Bergman A., Karlson L., Öquist M.& Svensson B. H. . 1999 Anaerobic degradation of nonylphenol mono- and diethoxylates in digestor sludge, landfill municipal solid waste and landfill sludge. Environ. Sci. Technol. 33, 301–306. (doi:10.1021/es980669u). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Ejlertsson E., Karlsson A., Lagerkvist A., Hjertberg T.& Svensson B. H. . 2003 Effects of co-disposal of wastes containing organic pollutants with municipal solid waste—a landfill simulation study. Adv. Environ. Res. 7, 949–960. (doi:10.1016/S1093-0191(02)00099-0). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Endo S., Takizawa R., Okuda K., Takada H., Chiba K., Kanehiro H., Ogi H., Yamashita R.& Date T. . 2005 Concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in beached resin pellets: variability among individual particles and regional differences. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 50, 1103–1114. (doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2005.04.030). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Eriksson C.& Burton H. . 2003 Origins and biological accumulation of small plastic particles in fur seals from Macquarie Island. Ambio 32, 380–384. Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
ESPA. 2002 Use, exposure and loss data for the use of mono/di-tin compounds as PVC stabilizers. Communication from the European Stabilizers Producers Association. Google Scholar
-
European Chemicals Bureau. 2003 Technical guide document on risk assessment. Institute for Health and Consumer Protection. Google Scholar
-
Foster P. M. D. . 2006 Disruption of reproductive development in male rat offspring following in utero exposure to phthalate esters. Int. J. Androl. 29, 140–147. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2605.2005.00563.x). Crossref, PubMed, Google Scholar -
Fromme H., Kuchler T., Otto T., Pilz K., Muller J.& Wenzel A. . 2002 Occurrence of phthalates and bisphenol A and F in the environment. Water Res. 36, 1429–1438. (doi:10.1016/S0043-1354(01)00367-0). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Fry D. M., Fefer S. I.& Sileo L. . 1987 Ingestion of plastic by laysan albatrosses and wedge-tailed shearwaters in the Hawaiian Islands. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 18, 339–343. (doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(87)80022-X). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Furtmann K. . 1996 Phthalates in the aquatic environment, p. 136. Bruxelles, Belgium: ECPI. Google Scholar -
Giam C. S., Atlas A., Powers J. M. A.& Leonard J. E. . 1984 Phthalic acid esters. Handbook of environmental chemistry, vol. 3 (ed.& Hutzinger O. ), pp. 67–140. New York, NY: Springer Verlag. Google Scholar -
Gilbert J., Stain J. R.& McGuinness J. D. . 1986 Compositional analysis of commercial PVC bottles and studies of aspects of specific and overall migration into foods and stimulants. Food Addit. Contam. 3, 133–144. Crossref, PubMed, Google Scholar -
Gregory M. R. . 2009 Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings—entanglement, ingestion, smothering, hangers-on, hitch-hiking and alien invasions. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 2013–2025. (doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0265). Link, ISI, Google Scholar -
Grun F.& Blumberg B. . 2007 Perturbed nuclear receptor signaling by environmental obesogens as emerging factors in the obesity crisis. Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord. 8, 161–171. (doi:10.1007/s11154-007-9049-x). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Hatzinger P. B.& Alexander M. . 1997 Biodegradation of organic compounds sequestered in organic solids or in nanopores within silica crystals. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 16, 2215–2221. (doi:10.1897/1551-5028(1997)016<2215:BOOCSI>2.3.CO;2). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Hu J., Jin F., Wan Y., Yang M., An L., An W.& Tao S. . 2005 Trophodynamic behavior of 4-nonylphenol and nonylphenol polyethoxylate in a marine aquatic food web from Bohai Bay, North China: comparison to DDTs. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 4801–4807. (doi:10.1021/es048735h). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Huang W. L.& Webber J. W. . 1997 A distribution reactivity model for sorption by soils and sediments. 10. Relationships between desorption, hysteresis, and the chemical characteristics of organic domains. Environ. Sci. Technol. 131, 2562–2569. Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Huang W. L., Yu H.& Weber W. J. . 1998 Hysteresis in sorption and desorption of hydrophobic organic contaminants by soils and sediments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32, 3549–3555. (doi:10.1021/es970764n). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Jonsson S. . 2003 Phthalates in landfill leachates—a signature of their degradation: analytical aspects and toxicological considerations (Diss.). Linköping Studies in Arts and Science no. 268, Linköping University, Sweden. Google Scholar -
Jonsson S., Ejlertsson J.& Svensson B. H. . 2003a Behaviour of mono and diesters of o-phthalic acid in leachates released during digestion of municipal solid waste under landfill conditions. Adv. Environ. Res. 7, 181–192. Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Jonsson S., Ejlertsson J., Ledin A., Mersiowsky I.& Svensson B. H. . 2003b Mono- and diesters from o-phthalic acid in leachates from different European landfills. Water Res. 37, 609–617. (doi:10.1016/S0043-1354(02)00304-4). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Jonsson S., Vavilin V. A.& Svensson B. H. . 2006 Phthalate hydrolysis under landfill conditions. Water Sci. Technol. 53, 119–127. Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Joo J. C., Kim J. Y.& Nam K. . 2004 Mass transfer of organic compounds in dilute aqueous solutions in high density polyethylene geomembranes. J. Environ. Eng. 130, 175–183. Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Karapanagioti H. K.& Klontza I. . 2008 Testing phenanthrene distribution properties of virgin plastic pellets and plastic eroded pellets found on lesvos island beaches (Greece). Mar. Environ. Res. 65, 283–290. Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Kawagoshi Y., Fujita Y., Kishi I.& Fukunaga I. . 2003 Estrogenic chemicals and estrogenic activity in leachate from municipal waste landfill determined by yeast two-hybrid assay. J. Environ. Monit. 5, 269–274. (doi:10.1039/b210962j). Crossref, PubMed, Google Scholar -
Kawamura Y., Koyama Y., Takeda Y.& Yamada T. . 1998 Migration of bisphenol A from poly-carbonate products. J. Food Hyg. Soc. Jpn 99, 206–212. Crossref, Google Scholar -
Koch H. M.& Calafat A. M. . 2009 Human body burdens of chemicals used in plastic manufacture. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 2063–2078. (doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0208). Link, ISI, Google Scholar -
Laist D. W. . 1997 Impacts of marine debris: entanglement of marine life in debris including a comprehensive list of species with entanglement and ingestion records. Marine debris—sources, impacts and solutions (eds, Coe J. M.& Rogers D. B. ), pp. 99–140. Berlin: Springer. Google Scholar -
Maguire R. J. . 1999 Review on the persistence of nonylphenol and nonylphenol ethoxylates in aquatic environments. Water Qual. Res. J. Can. 34, 37–78. Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Mascarenhas R., Santos R.& Zeppelini D. . 2004 Plastic ingestion by sea turtle in Paraiba, Brazil. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 49, 354–355. (doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.05.006). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Mato Y., Isobe T., Takada H., Kanehiro H., Ohtake C.& Kaminuma T. . 2001 Plastic resin pellets as a transport medium for toxic chemicals in the marine environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35, 318–324. (doi:10.1021/es0010498). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Mato Y., Takada H., Zakaria M. P., Kuriyama Y.& Kanehiro H. . 2002 Toxic chemicals contained in plastic resin pellets in the marine environment—spatial difference in pollutant concentrations and the effects of resin type. Kankyo Kagakukaishi 15, 415–423. Google Scholar -
McDermid K. J.& McMullen T. L. . 2004 Quantitative analysis of small-plastic debris on beaches in the Hawaiian archipelago. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 48, 790–794. (doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.10.017). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Meeker J. D., Sathyanarayana S.& Swan S. H. . 2009 Phthalates and other additives in plastics: human exposure and associated health outcomes. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 2097–2113. (doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0268). Link, ISI, Google Scholar -
Moore C. J., Moore S. L., Leecaster M. K.& Weisberg S. B. . 2001 A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific Central Gyre. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 42, 1297–1300. (doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(01)00114-X). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Murata T. . 1999 The endocrine disruptors contained in the plastics. Chem. Eng. 63, 305–309. Google Scholar -
Murphy S. R., Bertelo R., Ringwood M.& Cochran M. . 2000 Improved organotin stabilizers: continuing health and environmental research. J. Vinyl Addit. Technol. 6, 104–108. (doi:10.1002/vnl.10232). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Nakada N., Nyunoya H., Nakamura M., Hara A., Iguchi T.& Takada H. . 2004 Identification of estrogenic compounds in wastewater effluent. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 23, 2807–2815. (doi:10.1897/03-699.1). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Nakada N., Tanishima T., Shinohara H., Kiri K.& Takada H. . 2006 Pharmaceutical chemicals and endocrine disrupters in municipal wastewater in Tokyo and their removal during activated sludge treatment. Water Res. 40, 3297–3303. (doi:10.1016/j.watres.2006.06.039). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Neal R. A. . 1985 Mechanisms of the biological effects of PCBs, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in experimental animals. Environ. Health Perspect. 60, 41–46. (doi:10.2307/3429943). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Neidlinger H. H.& Schissel P. . 1987 Polymers in solar technologies. Polymers for advanced technologies. IUPAC international symposium (ed.& Lewin W. ). New York, NY: VCH. Google Scholar -
Ng K. L.& Obbard J. P. . 2006 Prevalence of microplastics in Singapore's coastal marine environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 52, 761–767. (doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2005.11.017). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Oehlmann J., 2009 A critical analysis of the biological impacts of plasticizers on wildlife. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 2047–2062. (doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0242). Link, ISI, Google Scholar -
Park J. K., Sakti J. P.& Hoopes J. A. . 1996 Transport of organic compounds in thermoplastic geomembranes. I: mathematical model. J. Environ. Eng. 122, 800–806. Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Pignatello J. J.& Xing B. . 1996 Mechanisms of slow sorption of organic chemicals to natural particles. Environ. Sci. Technol. 30, 1–11. (doi:10.1021/es940683g). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Reddy M. S., Basha S., Adimurthy S.& Ramachandraiah G. . 2006 Description of the small plastic fragments in marine sediments along the Alang-Sosiya ship-breaking yard, India. Est. Coast. Shelf Sci. 68, 656–660. (doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2006.03.018). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Reichenberg F.& Mayer P. . 2006 Two complementary sides of bioavailability: accessibility and chemical activity of organic contaminants in sediments and soils. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 25, 1239–1245. (doi:10.1897/05-458R.1). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Rios L. M., Moore C.& Jones P. R. . 2007 Persistent organic pollutants carried by synthetic polymers in the ocean environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 54, 1230–1237. (doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.03.022). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Robards M. D., Piatt J. F.& Wohl K. D. . 1995 Increasing frequency of plastic particles ingested by seabirds in the subarctic North Pacific. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 30, 151–157. (doi:10.1016/0025-326X(94)00121-O). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Rogers C. E., Stanett V.& Szwarc M. . 1960 The sorption, diffusion, and permeation of organic vapors in polyethylene. J. Polym. Sci. 45, 61–82. (doi:10.1002/pol.1960.1204514506). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Ryan P. G., Connell A. D.& Gardener B. D. . 1988 Plastic ingestion and PCBs in seabirds: is there a relationship? Mar. Pollut. Bull. 19, 174–176. (doi:10.1016/0025-326X(88)90674-1). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Ryan P. G., Moore C. J., van Franeker J. A.& Moloney C. L. . 2009 Monitoring the abundance of plastic debris in the marine environment. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 1999–2012. (doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0207). Link, ISI, Google Scholar -
Sakai S., Urano S.& Takatsuki H. . 2000 Leaching behavior of PCBs and PCDDs/DFs from some waste materials. Waste Manag. 20, 241–247. (doi:10.1016/S0956-053X(99)00316-5). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Sangam H. P.& Rowe K. . 2001 Migration of dilute aqueous organic pollutants through HDPE geomembranes. Geotext. Geomembr. 19, 329–357. (doi:10.1016/S0266-1144(01)00013-9). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Schulte-Oehlmann U., Tillmann M., Casey D., Duft M., Markert B.& Oehlmann J. . 2001 Xeon-estrogenic effects of bisphenol A in prosobranchs (mollusca: Gaastropoda: Prosbranchia). Z. Umweltchem. Okotox. 13, 319–333. Crossref, Google Scholar -
Sonnenschein C.& Soto A. M. . 1998 An updated review of environmental estrogen and androgen mimics and antagonists. J. Steriod Biochem. Mol. Biol. 65, 143–150. (doi:10.1016/S0960-0760(98)00027-2). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Staples C. A., Peterson D. R., Parkerton T. F.& Adams W. J. . 1997 The environmental fate of phthalates: a literature review. Chemosphere 35, 667–749. Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Sumpter J. P.& Johnson A. C. . 2005 Lessons from endocrine disruption and their application to other issues concerning trace organics in the aquatic environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 4321–4332. (doi:10.1021/es048504a). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Takeuchi I., Miyoshi N., Mizukawa K., Takada H., Ikemoto T., Omori K.& Tsuchiya K. . 2009 Biomagnification profiles of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, alkylphenols and polychlorinated biphenyls in Tokyo Bay elucidated by δ 13C and δ 15 N isotope ratios as guides to trophic web structure. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 58, 663–671. Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Teuten E. L., Rowland S. J., Galloway T. S.& Thompson R. C. . 2007 Potential for plastics to transport hydrophobic contaminants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 7759–7764. (doi:10.1021/es071737s). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Thompson R. C., Olsen Y., Mitchell R. P., Davis A., Rowland S. J., John A. W. G., McGonigle D.& Russell A. E. . 2004 Lost at sea: where is all the plastic? Science 304, 838. (doi:10.1126/science.1094559). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Thompson R. C., Swan S. H., Moore C. J.& vom Saal F. S. . 2009a Our plastic age. Phil. Trans R. Soc B 364, 1973–1976. (doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0054). Link, ISI, Google Scholar -
Thompson R. C., Moore C. J., vom Saal F. S.& Swan S. H. . 2009b Plastics, the environment and human health: current consensus and future trends. Phil. Trans R. Soc B 364, 2153–2166. (doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0053). Link, ISI, Google Scholar -
Tobolsky A. V.& Mark H. F. . 1980 Polymer science material (ed.& Robert E. ). Huntington, New York, NY: Krieger Publishing Company. Google Scholar -
Treloar L. R. G. . 1974 Introduction to polymer science. London and Winchester, UK: Wykeham Publications (London) Ltd. Google Scholar -
Vavilin V. A., Jonsson S.& Svensson B. H. . 2005 Kinetic analysis of the transformation of phthalate esters in a series of stoichiometric reactions in anaerobic wastes. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 69, 474–484. (doi:10.1007/s00253-005-0061-3). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Vlietstra L. S.& Parga J. A. . 2002 Long-term changes in the type, but not amount, of ingested plastic particles in short-tailed shearwaters in the southeastern Bering Sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 44, 945–955. (doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00130-3). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Voparil I. M.& Mayer L. A. . 2000 Dissolution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons into the lugworm's (Arenicola marina) digestive fluids. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34, 1221–1228. (doi:10.1021/es990885i). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Wagner T. . 2003. Factors controlling hydrophobic organic contaminant sorption to and desorption from municipal solid waste. Masters thesis, North Carolina State University. Google Scholar -
Weber W. J., McGinley P. M.& Katz L. E. . 1992 A distributed reactivity for sorption by soils sediments. 1. Conceptual basis and equilibrium assessments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 26, 1955–1962. (doi:10.1021/es00034a012). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
West C. . 2007 The photodegradation of diazepam and its human metabolites in water. PhD thesis, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK. Google Scholar -
WHO/IPCS. 1994 Brominated diphenyl ethers. Environmental Health Criteria 162. In
Proceedings of the International Programme on Chemical Safety . Geneva, Switzerland: WHO/IPCS. Google Scholar -
Wintgens T., Gallenkemper M.& Melin T. . 2003 Occurrence and removal of endocrine disrupters in landfill leachate treatment plants. Water Sci. Technol. 48, 127–134. Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Wu B., Taylor C. M., Knappe D. R. U., Nanny M. A.& Barlaz M. A. . 2001 Factors controlling alkylbenzene sorption to municipal solid waste. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35, 4569–4576. (doi:10.1021/es010893a). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Wurl O.& Obbard J. P. . 2004 A review of pollutants in the sea-surface microlayer (SML): a unique habitat for marine organisms. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 48, 1016–1030. (doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.03.016). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Xing B. S.& Pignatello J. J. . 1997 Dual-mode sorption of low-polarity compounds in glassy poly(vinyl chloride) and soil organic matter. Environ. Sci. Technol. 31, 792–799. (doi:10.1021/es960481f). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Yamamoto T., Yasuhara A., Shiraishi H.& Nakasugi O. . 2001 Bisphenol A in hazardous waste landfill leachates. Chemosphere 42, 415–418. (doi:10.1016/S0045-6535(00)00079-5). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Yamashita R., Takada H., Murakami M., Fukuwaka M.& Watanuki Y. . 2007 Evaluation of noninvasive approach for monitoring PCB pollution of seabirds using preen gland oil. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 4901–4906. (doi:10.1021/es0701863). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar -
Yasuhara A., 1997 Determination of organic components in leachates from hazardous waste disposal sites in Japan by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A 774, 321–332. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9673(97)00078-2). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Ye S.& Andrady A. L. . 1991 Fouling of floating plastic debris under Biscayne Bay exposure conditions. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 22, 608–613. (doi:10.1016/0025-326X(91)90249-R). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Ying G.-G.& Kookana R. S. . 2003 Degradation of five selected endocrine-disrupting chemicals in seawater and marine sediment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37, 1256–1260. (doi:10.1021/es0262232). Crossref, ISI, Google Scholar -
Zhang C., Zeng G., Yuan L., Yu J., Li J., Huang G., Xi B.& Liu H. . 2007 Aerobic degradation of bisphenol A by Achromobacter xylosoxidans strain B-16 isolated from compost leachate of municipal solid waste. Chemosphere 68, 181–190. (doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.12.012). Crossref, PubMed, ISI, Google Scholar