Sociology of Tourism

Cities have become creative spaces of total consumption, which constantly refuel the theoretical and practical bases of our consumer society. It is a further stage of the “fantasy city” (Hannigan): McDonaldization (Ritzer) and Disneyization (Bryman) have been largely metabolized and so-called “non-lieux” (Augé) have often become the most significant spaces and have helped to build new glocal identities. In such a context, theming – and particularly historical theming – has become a powerful and effective tool, since it gives a robust structure to the multiple and dynamic processes of mingling that characterize our liquid society (Bauman, 2000). Theming merges past and present, culture and leisure, originals and copies, as well as tourism and shopping, and gives an effective framework to this mingling, which is, at the same time, material and immaterial, visual and emotional, sensorial and experiential.
The relationship with the past is particularly interesting. The central archaeological area of Rome has become a sort of theme park, owing to the huge flows of tourists that it receives and the process of Disneyization that it has undergone, though – unlike many other Italian heritage towns, such as Venice and Florence – Rome still preserves a significant local identity and an urban life that goes far beyond tourism. The theming is present in its urban context owing partly to tourism and partly to the usual culturalization of consumption (hotels with Roman names, restaurants with Roman menus, resin souvenirs of the Colosseum, T-shirts with gladiators and legionaries etc.). We can single out the theming even in some of its most iconic places. The area of the Colosseum and forums, together with Via dei Fori Imperiali, which crosses and unites them, appears as an invisible and diffused theme park: a specialized district for leisure and cultural consumption where archaeological heritage acts as an attraction. It is not a leisure space themed to archaeology, but an archaeological space used as a theme park. Legionaries and gladiators for pictures and re-enactors act as living attractions.
Other spaces contribute to this process. Cinecittà, the dream machine of a boundless park, has helped to build the image of Rome and to theme the city. Its studios host film sets, which are at the same time a themed environment, an unusual archaeological site and a place where the myth of Rome is continually reshaped. Though distant from the main archaeological area, these studios are tied to it by an invisible thread, since they play an important role in the definition of its image. Outside the city, but inside its territory, there is also a small themed district formed by a Roman-themed outlet, “Castel Romano,” and an amusement park, “Cinecittà World”, themed to the studios that nurtured the golden age of Italian cinema.
Similarly, north of Rome, near Civitavecchia, where giant cruise ships bring huge tourist flows, a group of businessmen is trying to create “Roma Vetus”, a pharaonic theme park with reconstructions of many Roman monuments. In line with the current trends of experiential and sensory tourism, visitors would be allowed to relax in Roman baths, mint coins and grind grain. Groups of re-enactors would give life to the park, but visitors themselves would be enabled to rent costumes of gladiators, centurions and senators. We are clearly in the world of entertainment, far away from the open-air archaeological museums with their reconstructions and living-history activities. Its creators maintain that “Roma Vetus” will be used at the same time as theme park and a set for films and TV series. This park is probably destined to remain the dream of a minor group of daring speculators, but it clearly represents the dynamics at work in our liquid world.

Urban tourism has recorded unprecedented growth since the turn of the millennium and has been welcomed in destination cities as a source of economic development. But cities' tourism economies have been among the hardest hit sectors by the COVID-19 crisis. To address the crisis, local authorities, national tourism offices and destination marketing organisations have focused on rebuilding and reactivating the tourism sector by reviving its value chain and economic interlinkages with other sectors. This brief explores the effects of the COVID-19-induced urban tourism crisis and possible policy responses. The first part provides general background on the evolution of urban tourism governance. Part two analyses the immediate policy responses and countermeasures taken by different scales of government in the face of the pandemic. Most of the public assistance efforts were of a fiscal nature and centred on the rescue of micro, small and medium-sized businesses (MSMEs). Building on the analysis of these short-term measures, the brief emphasises how the COVID-19 crisis has highlighted the urgent need to transition to new urban tourism economic models that are more self-sufficient, locally productive and inclusive. Finally, it offers policy recommendations for the development of longer-term strategies that can help interlink future tourism development and the low-carbon urban mobility transition; create local tourism economies with fair working conditions and support for MSMEs; and diversify local economies while transitioning towards more inclusive tourism governance that reduces the sectors' negative social externalities.

La pregunta que orienta el trabajo que presentamos es la siguiente:¿ el modelo turístico-residencial es un tipo de desarrollo aceptado por la ciudadanía? Se responderá a esta cuestión a partir del análisis cualitativo de los discursos producidos por los principales actores sociales implicados en la dinámica de este proceso en las sociedades receptoras.

Τα τελευταία χρόνια, σύμφωνα με τα στοιχεία της Διεθνούς Ένωσης Κρουαζιέρας (CLIA), καταγράφεται μια συνεχής ανάπτυξη του κλάδου της κρουαζιέρας. Εκτιμάται ότι οι επιβάτες στα κρουαζιερόπλοια θα ξεπεράσουν τα 30.000.000 εκατομμύρια παγκοσμίως. Επίσης, εκτιμάται ότι η παγκόσμια οικονομική συμβολή της κρουαζιέρας θα ανέλθει στα 135 δις δολάρια και θα δημιουργήσει 1,1 εκατομμύρια θέσεις εργασίας.
Η ανάπτυξη της κρουαζιέρας απαιτεί γνώσεις από διάφορα επιστημονικά πεδία π.χ. την κοινωνιολογία, τη νομική επιστήμη, την οικονομική επιστήμη, τη γεωγραφία, τις φυσικές επιστήμες κ.λπ. Η διαχείριση της κρουαζιέρας απαιτεί γνώσεις τόσο του τομέα της ναυτιλίας, όσο και του τομέα του τουρισμού. Μάλιστα, η γνώση αυτή πρέπει να υπερβαίνει τα όρια ενός κράτους καθώς η κρουαζιεροπλοΐα διακρίνεται για τον έντονο διεθνή χαρακτήρα της. Οι επιδράσεις της κρουαζιέρας, θετικές και αρνητικές, διαχέονται σε διάφορες χώρες, καθώς το κρουαζιερόπλοιο δραστηριοποιείται σε λιμένες ευρύτερων θαλάσσιων περιοχών. Η διεπιστημονική προσέγγιση της κρουαζιέρας απαιτεί από τον απασχολούμενο στον κλάδο αυτό να έχει γνώσεις πέραν των τομέων της ναυτιλίας και του τουρισμού και σε διάφορα θέματα όπως της προστασίας του περιβάλλοντος, των εργασιακών σχέσεων, θεμάτων προστασίας υγείας και ασφάλειας, του ενωσιακού δικαίου, κ.λπ.
Με το σύγγραμμα αυτό επιδιώκεται μια βασική προσέγγιση του πολυσχιδούς κλάδου της κρουαζιέρας. Απευθύνεται στους φοιτητές των ναυτιλιακών και τουριστικών τμημάτων της ανώτατης εκπαίδευσης, στους επαγγελματίες του κλάδου της κρουαζιέρας, αλλά και σε όποιον επιθυμεί να γνωρίσει τον ιδιαίτερο χώρο της κρουαζιεροπλοΐας. Παράλληλα φιλοδοξεί να συμβάλλει στον επιστημονικό διάλογο που σκοπεύει στη διαμόρφωση της κατάλληλης πολιτικής για την ανάπτυξη της κρουαζιέρας στη χώρα μας.

"Earlier provisional title was "Archaeology, Tourism, Museum...."

"This chapter is divided into two distinct sections that are positioned in a point-counterpoint structure of dialogue. These two position statements invoke the etymological meanings of the word essay, to attempt, put to the test, trial, to act out, to explore, travel, and travail. The first is an historical analysis written in the third person by an anthropologist whose expertise includes the ethnography of archaeology and the anthropology of tourism. The second is a counterpoint commentary written in the first person by an anthropologist whose specializations include Pre-Columbian and historical archaeology. Both of us have significant research experience in same area of the Maya world in Yucatán, México. From these two differing vantage points, we chart our perspectives on the relationship between archaeology and tourism in terms of the problems of exploration, protection, and exploitation.
In the first section, Castañeda takes an historical approach to the emergence of archaeology in the institutional context of the modern museum. He essays an analytical and theoretical manifesto about the deep, intimate interconnections between tourism and archaeology as revealed through an understanding of the museum. In his historical analysis of the role of archaeological representation in the museum, he identifies the sociological creation of universal heritage. He theorizes a notion of the universal citizen-heir as the implied benefactor of this universal heritage. In the second section, Mathews elaborates a commentary on this historical analysis of archaeology, tourism, heritage and the museum. Specifically, she counter-argues and assesses Castañeda theoretical and analytical claims through the use of archaeology and tourism at sites that are not postcard worthy. Together these two “attempts” grapple with the historical and contemporary interconnections between archaeology and tourism. Together we put to the test our typical assumptions about the ethics of archaeologists, tourists, and tourism promoters in the contemporary contexts in which we are now beginning to ask how and why archaeology and tourism are interwoven phenomena in today’s world.""

In un mondo perennemente in festa, dove tutto (o quasi) è maschera, turismo e divertimento, che significato possono avere feste e Carnevali? O, al contrario, perché il linguaggio del Carnevale, con le sue maschere e i suoi eccessi, appare ancora così significativo nella nostra società? Perché in Cina o negli Stati Uniti città e centri commerciali si mascherano da città d’arte italiane? Perché i nostri musei diventano spazi di festa e di consumo, accogliendo persino sfilate di moda e danze masai? Perché la politica indossa maschere o usa il nostro patrimonio culturale come una maschera? In che modo feste e Carnevali, nell’età delle migrazioni e delle nuove paure, possono diventare strumenti d’integrazione o occasione di nuovi conflitti?
Questo libro, frutto di una pluriennale collaborazione con il Centro internazionale di ricerca e studi su Carnevale, Maschera e Satira, cerca di rispondere a queste e ad altre domande, affrontando criticamente una serie di temi chiave per comprendere la cultura postmoderna in cui viviamo e quella post-postmoderna in cui stiamo entrando. Una riflessione insomma sulla società che da "liquida", come sosteneva Bauman, è già diventata "vischiosa".

Marxiano Melotti, Carnevalizzazione e società postmoderna. Maschere, linguaggi, paure, Progedit, Bari 2019

This paper explores the kind of stories non-humans enable us to tell about tourism. It introduces a ‘relational materialist’ approach to investigate tourism through the early life of a building called Zero Davey. In providing upmarket hotel accommodation, Zero Davey imported tourism into a place that is well established as the postcard image of Hobart, Australia’s southern-most city. In adding tourism stock to the Sullivans Cove precinct, Zero Davey acted as an importation device for tourism; however, this was only the first story. The building also delivered a controversy among ‘the people’ who deemed its appearance to be ‘out of keeping’ with Sullivans Cove. While this began to mirror a fairly common dialogue between ‘hosts and guests’, neither the provision of tourist accommodation nor the architecture of the building held any significance to the importation logistics or planning approval for Zero Davey. Instead, this was founded on the building’s ability to respond to a more expert reading of Sullivans Cove and another set of norms associated with ‘geological and urban integrity’. Consequently, there were three ‘buildings’ and no final ‘body’ who could arbitrate or adequately explain Zero Davey because the tourism object, the object of controversy and the object of design were not related to each other except through the building itself. Beginning with this claim gives Zero Davey an interest in the events of its own controversy, a role in its own design and a portion of the explanation for how tourism happens.

Tourist experiences are not merely visual but multisensory. When considering the sounds of nature, tourists often have conflicting preferences regarding the appropriate and desired soundscape. The article explores these preferences and how they relate to different ways of engagement with nature, each having its own historical roots, agents and social meanings; each focused on different affordances of nature and demanding different prerequisites. Interviews with Israeli visitors of nature sites show that what they consider ‘noise’ depends on their social (class/ethnic) identification, but also on the mode of touristic engagement they employ. Thus, tourists who render themselves subject to nature’s therapeutic, aesthetic or spiritual influence have very different sensitivity to human-made sounds than those who consider nature a stage for social or physical activity.

Summary

The purpose of this book is to introduce the reader to problems and processes of the modern tourism market and to tendencies in the development of tourism at the beginning of the 21 st century. The passing of centuries always makes people think about the future. But the fact that with the ending of this century humankind will start the third millennium gives a special perspective. We must also remember that the twentieth century was very unique among others. It was the century of tremendous progress and development in all aspects of life. Tourism in comparison with other processes experienced particular speed of development. During only a few dozen decades it transformed from an elitist to a mass activity in which millions of people participated all over the world. At the same time it turned into a developed and progressive kind of world industry. What is more, the speed of development of world tourism is still increasing. All surveys show that in the next twenty years tourism will be the fastest growing branch of the world economy.

The dynamic growth of tourism is accompanied by deep changes in quality. They are seen as a matter of tourism demand as well as a matter of tourism supply. Fast changes in social, environmental and technological structure widely affect the tourism market. These diverse changes concern both tourists and tourism providers needs, motivations and preferences. We can notice wider and wider usage of the new technologies, especially as far as communication is concerned. The range of the transformation is so big that without any hesitation we can speak about a revolution which occurs in the whole world of travel and tourism in general. The new trends are very much connected and followed by geopolitical changes. The fall of communism and the democratisation of the postcommunist countries, as well as formation of the European Union, are only some of the most spectacular events.

We are speaking of changes which concern not only Europe, but also the rest of the world. Similar changes also took place in other parts of the world. Many new countries and regions entered the international tourist exchange. The result of these changes is the globalisation of tourism. The fading away of borders in international investment and the concentration of capital are some of the most important features of the world economy in the twentieth century. These tendencies are also typical in the tourist market, where big international companies compete successfully on new markets, and also promote new trends and standards which will be valid in the near future. Of more and more significance are the care of the natural and cultural environment, and the struggle to reduce unfavourable events which appear along with tourism. All these indicated problems show that tourism, like the whole civilisation at the end of the twentieth century, went through a period of rapid changes. What will life be like in the twenty-first century?

What will be the role of tourism? In this book the author tries to find the answer to these and many other questions which bother those who are interested in tourism. In the first chapter the author tries to answer the questions: ”What is tourism at the end of the twentieth century?” He shows the evolution of this phenomenon throughout the last century. This chapter shows what tools can be used to examine all of tourism problems and the effects which they have on social and industrial life. The author underlines the ambivalent character of modern tourism and its many functions. This along with a profile of ten basic functions of tourism reveals some realistic and potential disadvantages which are connected to the development of this branch of tourism industry. Thus the reader finds the answer to whether or not tourism is always a positive social phenomenon or if its role is sometimes overestimated.


The second chapter discusses factors which led to the great development of tourism in a relatively short time. This chapter consists of three subsections. The first describes factors which stimulated development of the tourism demand, the second profiles the most important elements of tourism supply, the third subsection concerns the problems and the development of tourism policy. The reason to show some history is to find some steady trends in development which help us to articulate some future tendencies in tourism, which are discussed in the second part of the book.

The third chapter explains some economic functions and growth of the tourism significance, which by many is considered to be the biggest industry in the world. The first part of the chapter defines the tourism industry and the range of its interests. The second part presents tourism as a part of economic connections among countries. It shows surveys of the size, dynamics and main sectors of the tourism industry. It also shows a balance of trade in the international tourism. This section pays special attention to the profiles and advantages of the so-called invisible exports in certain countries and regions.

The fourth chapter presents the most important dilemma connected to the development of tourism. Most problems are concentrated in cities, villages and regions which attract tourists, so this part focuses on social and financial aspects of tourism in regions of reception. It underlines disadvantages caused by uncontrolled development of tourism. Because of great differences between developed and developing countries this chapter consists of two parts, each of which presents suggestions of solutions in order to reduce some of these problems adequately in developed and developing countries. In the fifth chapter information about current trends on the tourism market may be found. The basis for it is the analysis of the most important financial and social tendencies which are called ”megatrends.” There is more particular information directly connected with tourism on this background. The problems connected with supply are described separately from the problems of demand, to show them more clearly. The most important trends are shown in tables built in a similar way to the idea of J. Krippendorf – “Hard & Soft Tourism”. These tables show differences appearing when we compare the most important features of traditional tourism (by the middle of the eighties) and modern, which started in the nineties and will continue into the beginning of the twenty–first century. A prognosis on the development in the first years of the twenty-first century is described in the sixth chapter. This prediction is based on three independent reports of the most important international tourist organisations: World Tourism Organisation, World Travel & Tourism Council and International Touring Alliance. This presentation is preceded by descriptions of predicting in tourism accuracy. To summarise this chapter, a very interesting table made by the futurologist Herman Kahn may be found. He was the first one to predict that at the end of the twentieth-century tourism would be the largest industry in the world. He based this famous table on original indexes and measures of different events connected to tourism. H. Kahn analysed the development of tourism from1929 to 2029. It seems to show the nature and structure of changes in tourism in the twentieth and in the first decades of the twenty-first century very accurately. In Annex it as placed The Hague Declaration on Tourism. The declaration is found as a document in which the most important problems of modern tourism and some postulates concerning its further development are enclosed.


“ ... We receive, what should be strongly underlined, the first in Poland so large compendium of knowledge on tourism, describing different aspects of the subject.”
(part of the foreword of Prof. K. Przecławski)

The purpose of this study is to examine the emerging flashpacker sub-culture in relation to the backpacker culture. Cultural Consensus Analysis is employed to examine the potential cultural divergence between flashpackers and non-flashpackers. A mixed-mode dual-frame sampling procedure was employed for data collection, as surveys were administered through Facebook backpacker-groups and in hostels in Cairns, Australia. The results indicate that flashpacker and non-flashpacker groups have a shared cultural understanding of backpacking. In addition to the conceptual clarity of the emerging flashpacker, this study also provides some interesting insights into contemporary backpacker culture and the continuing convergence of physical travel with information and communication technologies.

Tourism has traditionally been considered as the activity that allows people to live non-usual experiences in non-usual places through mobility. Nowadays, when landscape is understood as every place perceived as it by a community, when the globalization of information makes easier the knowledge of further places than usual ones, and when sustainability is the new politics framework, also in tourism, a tourist offer to closer and, at the same time, unknown places seems relevant in order to beat tourism’ seasonal constraints and increase the value of usual environments. This last goal is an essential step forward to a development from local scale and, for this reason, this paper tries to study how endogen resources appreciation from a tourist activity can encourage an integrative and participative development process.

In order to escape just another description of a case study is required that from it are withdrawn contributions that may actually help designing an intervention that is transverse to
the numerous similar cases occurring globally. We will therefore present some of the most obvious
impacts of the pressure that tourism has had on the community and on the island, how those are
perceived and its implications, but also loom thoughts that may allow us to mitigate its negative impacts, namely, the importance of governance in contemporary strategy to overcome struggles and stay a step closer to sustainable development.

The terms “overtourism” and “tourismphobia” arise from the flourishing evolution of unsustainable mass tourism practices and the response that these have generated amongst a number of individuals and civil societies concerned with the detrimental use of public spaces for tourism purposes and associated international and local development and management policies. Social movements have emerged across Europe and globally to address what is referred to as overtourism, a term associated with exploitative practices by policymakers and destination managers, leading to unsustainable tourism practices and unbearable conditions for those residing in the affected destinations. The paper will observe how Barcelona is facing a resistance movement that criticize the contemporary urban touristic model.

Zakynthos, niewielka wyspa na zachodzie Grecji, jest obecnie jednym z najpopularniejszych celów wakacyjnych podróży u wybrzeży Morza Śródziemnego. Wraz z liczbą wypoczywających zwiększa się również zasób narracji mówiących o tym miejscu. Kształtują one oczekiwania turystów i sposób ich percepcji. Obraz Zakynthos w wakacyjnych folderach różni się od rzeczywistości i nie znajduje odzwierciedlenia w realiach życia zamieszkującej wyspę ludności. Narracje, służąc interesom touroperatorów chcącym stworzyć alternatywny obraz świata, roztaczają przed wczasowiczami wizję raju. Sposób prowadzenia narracji przekłada się na doświadczenia turystów i formy organizacji ich wypoczynku, a także wpływa na zachowania mieszkańców wyspy, którzy, stając się przedmiotem opisu, dążą do przebudowy własnej tożsamości. Niniejsze studium przypadku oparte jest na kilkunastu miesiącach badań prowadzonych na Zakynthos.

This thesis examines the search for self in the context of lifestyle travellers. It has been suggested that maintaining a coherent sense of self has become problematic in late modernity as the socially constructed notion of a ‘true self’ has come to be regarded as concrete, whilst choice has increasingly replaced obligation or tradition as a basis in defining selves. Issues of self have been noted as especially important in the context of adopted lifestyles, as lifestyle can be a means through which individuals seek coherence in their lives. Furthermore, travelling to ‘find one’s self’ has a lengthy tradition in popular literature that has also been reflected in tourism studies where research has been conducted into backpacker and traveller identities.

Lifestyle travel is a post-traditional way of life wherein individuals are voluntarily exposed to an array of cultural praxes. Thus, the literatures on self, lifestyle and tourism point to lifestyle travel as a context where issues of self may be particularly relevant. Whilst there is a significant and growing body of research within tourism studies on backpackers, there is a dearth of information on individuals that travel as a lifestyle. Therefore, this thesis contributes to academic knowledge not only through its investigation into the search for self, but also by its conceptualisation of and empirical research into lifestyle travellers.

With criteria for defining lifestyle travellers based on of a fluid combination of self-definition of travel as one’s lifestyle and multiple trips of approximately six months or more, twenty-five semi-structured in-depth interviews were carried out by the researcher with lifestyle travellers in northern Indian and southern Thailand from July through September 2007. In keeping with the paradigmatic ideals of interpretivism, emergent themes were identified from within the qualitative material including meanings that the lifestyle travellers attached to the search for self, surrounding issues of avoidance and seeking that influenced why they travelled as a lifestyle and their future travel intentions.

Although there were multiple perspectives on how the search for self was conceived and approached, searching for self was voiced as a critical motivating factor for the majority of the lifestyle travellers. With a common view among most of the respondents of self as an internal object to be developed, many lifestyle travellers had been or were still on a Romantic modern quest of searching for their true self. Escapism, freedom and learning through challenge were identified as important themes surrounding the search for self, as lifestyle travellers described varying degrees of success in escaping their home societies and finding increased free space and time to learn about and challenge their ideas of self. Paradoxically, most of the lifestyle travellers sought to experience an inner self that dominant sociological views posit does not exist. The tension of searching for a unified sense of self in a world of relational selves is highlighted as not only problematic for the interviewees, but also for previous tourism studies that have premised their contributions on the existence of an inner self.

The current paper aims to analyze the novel of Italo Calvino ‘’Invisible Cities’’ from a destination marketing perspective. Remarkable efforts have been made within the last 2 decades to throw light on the particular novel from different aspects and different scientific fields. Sociology, History of Art, Political Science, Architecture, Literature and Engineering contributed with in-depth studies and reached interesting findings. However, Marketing and Destination Marketing in particular, may offer an innovative approach to Calvino’s visionary destination and, in general, enhance the knowledge on this novel, by showcasing its affiliation with the discipline of marketing and the effect of storytelling on the readers. Additionally, from the destination marketing perspective, ‘’Invisible Cities’’ demonstrates its topical character and constitutes a brilliant paradigm of how modern marketing addresses to the the receiver’s unconsious, dealing with the formation of expectations. The author indirectly, but always on purpose, transforms his readers to imaginary visitors of his destination, by using a storytelling to an extent that it creates images, desires and expectations.
Marco Polo, one of the 2 main characters in the novel, does not merely describe what he encountered in his trips, but, also gives weight in his descriptions on what he felt and what his thoughts were every time he walked in a new city. Kublai Khan, the other main character, enjoyed this narration and chose to learn everything about his Empire from Marco Polo, even though there was a language barrier in the beginning. The resemblance is remarkable between the pair of Kublai Khan – Marco Polo and marketer – visitor or the pair storytelling – expectations.
Four assumptions have been made and proved in this desk research, based on a literature review of destination marketing. Comparative content analysis and conceptual analysis have been applied in order to confirm the viability of our assumptions.
Kublai Khan reflects every modern tourist, Assumption I, whilst Marco Polo represents every destination marketer, Assumption II. The two aforementioned assumptions are independent factors to each other, but they both constitute a necessary condition for Assumption III to be proven, according to which Italo Calvino attempts to bring his readers to the Emperor’s position and lures them with his narration to imaginary journeys.
With this action, Italo not only invites his readers to visit his destination but, in parallel, triggers them to develop expectations and motivates them to create their own visionary image of the destination. And this, is one of the main goals of the modern destination marketing. Consequently, is Italo Calvino a genius destination marketer of his age and is ‘’Invisible Cities’’ a great paradigm of modern destination storytelling? This question constitutes Assumption IV of this study and follows the confirmation of all the prior assumptions. Based on conceptual analysis, we conclude that Italo Calvino offers a remarkable destination marketing case study with this novel, a fact that leads to the confirmation of the fourth assumption.

"This article reviews the changing nature of contemporary tourism and sociological approaches to its study. We examine the broad social trends and specific historical events that recently affected tourism and discuss how the focus of sociological inquiry in tourism studies shifted from earlier discourses of authenticity and the tourist gaze to three novel theoretical approaches, the mobilities “paradigm”, the performativity approach and actor-network theory (ANT), which each reflect a broader meta-theoretical re-orientation in contemporary philosophy and sociology. We appraise these conceptual developments and discuss their limitations. We then identify several current research issues as important areas for problem-oriented work at the intersections of tourism and contemporary society: social justice, environmental sustainability, natural disasters, terrorism, heritage, embodiment and affect, and mediatization.

Keywords: social trends, authenticity, mobilities, performativity, actor-network theory, current issues"

The tourist gaze is a key concept in tourism literature. It explains a wide range of concepts including tourists’ visual consumption of a destination to tourists’ experience and performing at a destination. Although the tourist gaze is based on Michel Foucault’s power discourse, the gaze theory is now conceptualized on fragmented concepts including sociology, anthropology, technology, gender studies, nature, and science. Due to its distinct nature, the tourist gaze could be applied in different contexts to deliver different results. Therefore, tourist gaze could vary according to different demographics including age, gender, education, and complex social factors including politics, economy, geographical boundaries. Few empirical contributions of the tourist gaze involve city planning, destination branding, and product development. Few key concepts of tourist gaze are mutual gaze, host gaze, local gaze, reverse gaze, and intra-tourist gaze.

Il turismo archeologico subacqueo in Italia: opportunità e rischi
1. Una straordinaria opportunità
2. Elitismo gentrificato e slow diving
3. Una pratica virtuale ed educativa
4. Mondo blu e mondo grigio: l’alterità del turismo subacqueo
5. Una cura per un sistema cancerizzato? Il caso di Siracusa
6. La chimera del turismo sostenibile: le Cinque Terre e Capri
7. I percorsi subacquei di Ustica: turismo e archeologia
8. Autenticità e spazi marini: Ustica e Corfu
9. Turisti, archeologi o pirati? Spot e archeologia subacquea
10. Atlantide e il turismo subacqueo pseudo-archeologico
11. Ustica: il museo delle anfore tra voyeurismo e necrofilia
12. Dal mito alla realtà: i percorsi fantasma di Ustica
13. Il sontuoso mondo di Baia e la nascita del turismo
14. Il parco sommerso di Baia e il Ninfeo di Punta Epitaffio
15. La vendetta del Ciclope: un percorso difficile

Secara ekonomi, pariwisata telah menyumbang terhadap pertumbuhan devisa negara yang berbanding lurus dengan jumlah kunjungan wisata. Secara sosial, pariwisata menyumbang terhadap lapangan kerja bagi penduduk di daerah tujuan wisata. Kemudian, secara budaya pariwisata mampu melenggengkan kebudayaan masyarakat di daerah tujuan wisata. Sumatera Barat sebagai salah satu daerah tujuan wisata utama di Indonesia telah menjadi bagian dari kepariwisataan Indonesia dan secara tidak langsung adalah penerima manfaat positif pariwisata dengan potensi yang dimiliki.
Sumatera Barat merupakan salah satu daerah tujuan wisata utama di Indonesia. Salah satu kawasan yang menarik dan memiliki kekhasan –baik alam maupun budaya- di Sumatera Barat adalah kawasan Danau Maninjau dengan keindahan alam yang dikelilingi bukit di sekitarnya. Produk andalan wisata Maninjau antara lain berupa alam pegunungan dan budaya Melayu. Namun demikian, dalam prakteknya pariwisata Danau Maninjau belum dikenal sebagai kawasan pariwisata yang dikunjungi wisatawan karena faktor budaya masyarakat yang unik ataupun karena faktor atraksi budaya yang selalu digelar oleh anak nagari, akan tetapi pariwisata Danau Maninjau dalam prakteknya dikunjungi oleh wisatawan lebih dominan karena faktor selain budaya. Dalam hal ini muncul pertanyaan Mengapa pariwisata budaya di kawasan Danau Maninjau tidak berkembang dengan baik. Dalam rangka menjawab pertanyaan tersebut penelitian ini dilakukan dengan tujuan : 
1. Mendeskripsikan potensi dan pengelolaan pariwisata di kawasan Danau Maninjau.
2. Mengidentifikasi pemanfaatan aktifitas budaya sebagai daya tarik wisata dan alasan wisatawan untuk berkunjung ke Danau Maninjau.
3. Mengidentifikasi kendala-kendala berkembangnya kawasan Danau Maninjau menjadi kawasan pariwisata budaya.
Penelitian dilakukan secara empriris di Kecamatan Tanjung Raya, Kab.Agam dimana Kecamatan Tanjung Raya adalah kecamatan yang melingkupi wilayah administratif Danau Maninjau dan nagari di sekelilingnya. Penelitian telah dilakukan dengan metode kualitatif dengan pendekatan sosiologis melalui wawancara-wawancara dan observasi di nagari-nagari yang merupakan kantong-kantong kebudayaan di Kecamatan Tanjungn Raya.
Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat 3 potensi wisata yang ada di kawasan Danau Maninjau. ketiga potensi tersebut adalah wisata alam, wisata sejarah dan wisata budaya. Masing-masing potensi memiliki beberapa objek yang memperkaya kapariwisataan kawasan Danau Maninjau. Namun dalam pengelolaannya, ketiga potensi dengan objek-objek yang dimiliki belum terkelola dengan baik dan saling teritegrasi. Hanya beberapa objek yang dapat terkelola. Khusus untuk wisata budaya, belum ada ketertarikan khusus wisatawan berkunjung ke Danau Maninjua untuk menikmati kebudayaan dan kesenian yang ada di nagari. Mereka lebih dominan berkunjung karena keindahan alam kawasan Danau Maninjau.
Selain itu, dari penelitian ini diperoleh hasil bahwa yang menjadi kendala berkembangnya kawasan Danau Maninjau menjadi kawasan wisata budaya adalah karena tidak adanya layanan wisata budaya yang disuguhkan oleh pelaku wisata kepada wisatawan yang berkunjung sehingga tidak memberi kepuasan kepada pengunjung. Dengan tidak adanya kepuasan tersebut, pengunjung tidak memiliki ketertarikan terhadap kebudayaan. Dengan demikian, pariwisata budaya kawasan Danau Maninjau tetap sebagai kawasan wisata alam. Selain itu, terdapat empat faktor lain yang turut menyumbang bagi lemahnya pelayanan wisata budaya.  Keempat faktor tersebut meliputi Sumber Daya Manusia, partisipasi. Kebijakan dan manajemen promosi.

Although the concept of lifestyle is gaining speed as a theoretical tool in the social sciences, it has not yet been used as a level of social analysis within the field of tourism. This presentation uses theory on lifestyle to conceptualise and subsequently empirically illustrate a tourism niche that has also received scant attention within the academe, that of lifestyle travellers. Lifestyle traveller is a social category representing individuals with extended engagement in corporeal mobility as a style of life, in this case through the mode of backpacking. I illustrate the practice of tourism as a lifestyle through empirical material drawn from ethnographic interviews carried out with backpackers in northern India and southern Thailand in 2007. The findings suggest that certain individuals move beyond the practice of backpacking as part of a transitional phase or time-out from ‘normal’ life and instead style their lives around an ongoing involvement with backpacker tourism. This practice of tourism as a lifestyle choice intersects with issues of identity and expressivity that come to the fore in late modernity. A theoretical implication of this research is that former related, but arguably outmoded, social categories within tourism, such as that of E. Cohen’s (1972) ‘drifter’, should be replaced by a contemporary description of lifestyle travellers.

Questo volume riprende il lavoro portato avanti all'interno del dottorato di ricerca in "Sociology of Regional and Local Development", XXVII ciclo, presso l'Università di Teramo. La ricerca di dottorato, di cui questa pubblicazione è una sintesi, ha approfondito le dinamiche del fenomeno dei turismi in bicicletta, fenomeno che negli ultimi anni ha conosciuto un rinnovato interesse sia negli utenti che all'interno delle politiche dei vari Stati, ma che manca, almeno in Italia, di un approfondimento scientifico. Il testo parte da un excursus sulla storia della bicicletta passando poi all'individuazione di una definizione di "cicloturismo" che possa individuare compiutamente il fenomeno, identificando le diverse tipologie dei soggetti che utilizzano la bicicletta all'interno della loro esperienza turistica. Una successiva analisi della letteratura esistente e delle fonti statistiche e documentarie, nazionali e internazionali (riferimenti storici, normativi, economici e sociologici), ricostruisce l'evoluzione del fenomeno ponderando il peso dei fattori strutturali che possono influenzare la formazione delle rappresentazioni sociali inerenti al tema della ricerca.

Bringing together scholars from the areas of tourism, leisure and cultural studies, eco-humanities and tourism management, this book examines the emerging phenomenon of slow tourism. The book explores the range of travel experiences that are part of growing consumer concerns with quality leisure time, environmental and cultural sustainability, as well as the embodied experience of place. Slow tourism encapsulates a range of lifestyle practices, mobilities and ethics that are connected to social movements such as slow food and cities, as well as specialist sectors such as ecotourism and voluntourism. The slow experience of temporality can evoke and incite different ways of being and moving, as well as different logics of desire that value travel experiences as forms of knowledge. Slow travel practices reflect a range of ethical-political positions that have yet to be critically explored in the academic literature despite the growth of industry discourse.

The literature on tourism research mentions creative tourism as a form of special interest tourism allowing a wider participation of tourists in local communities and their tangible and intangible cultural assets, in contrast to traditional mass cultural tourism.
Creative tourists have opportunities to engage in meaningful experiences mainly through acts of co-creation. In research on the experience economy, in which experiences gain relevance in relation to services, some authors mention the development of several types of capital by different groups, such as supply managers, local communities and creative tourists. This is relevant to the study of tourism because the various social groups mentioned above have been gaining importance in the organisation of supply and demand.
A systematic review was used as a method of analysing how cultural capital theory is being used in creative tourism. The findings show that only a few researches have applied capital theory to creative tourism and, therefore, much more research is needed.
Keywords: creative tourism, cultural capital, co-creation, experience economy and systematic review

O foco do trabalho é a ilha da Boa Vista em Cabo Verde, contextualizada no âmbito nacional
e regional desde a sua independência em 1975. Apresentamos os indicadores referentes ao turismo e
a sua influência na agenda do arquipélago. Através da aplicação de entrevistas a residentes da ilha, e
de um inquérito aos turistas internacionais, a investigação centrou-se na recolha e análise de
perceções. Perceções dos residentes relativas à motivação dos turistas, aos impactos agregados ao
turismo, relativamente ao futuro e linhas prioritárias de correção. Já aos turistas, questionou-se o
que os trazia à ilha, como avaliavam a sua experiência e se considerariam regressar à Boa Vista.

Negli ultimi anni l’attenzione verso il cibo ha assunto, almeno nei Paesi euro-occidentali, più profondamente inseriti nei processi di globalizzazione e caratterizzati da comportamenti culturali di tipo “liquido” e post-moderno, il carattere di una vera e propria ossessione collettiva. Il successo di trasmissioni televisive e di libri a tema culinario, reality shows con gare di cucina, corsi di cucina, il processo di popolarizzazione dell’alta cucina e degli chefs stellati, l’attenzione per le recensioni dei vini e dei ristoranti sono solo le manifestazioni più appariscenti di un fenomeno che va ben oltre la cosiddetta cultura popolare e costituisce parte integrante delle politiche culturali e turistiche di molti territori. Cibo e vino hanno costituito un’importante forma di appagamento collettivo e di spazio di socializzazione e di negoziazione identitaria in una fase difficile del nostro recente passato, in cui i valori costitutivi di una società fondata sui consumi sembravano irreparabilmente compromessi.
In Italia da alcuni anni stiamo assistendo, da parte delle amministrazioni, degli operatori turistici e dei turisti stessi, alla definizione di un sistema di “narrative turistiche” fortemente tematizzate sul cibo e sul vino. L’Expo 2015 di Milano ha costituito un momento chiave di questo processo. Il suo argomento, “Nutrire il pianeta”, aveva in teoria un respiro globale, che implicava una riflessione più alta, di carattere anche etico-politico, ma l’Expo, di fatto, è stata largamente riconvertita in un grande festival dell’enogastronomia, all’insegna della valorizzazione dei prodotti locali, dell’autenticità territoriale, della “lentezza” e così via. Ciò ha contribuito ad accelerare il processo di “enogastronomizzazione” del turismo, delle politiche locali e della stessa elaborazione scientifica italiana.
L’aspetto paradossale è che questa nuova ricerca dell’autenticità locale, rivolta alla definizione di pratiche turistiche innovative e, in senso più ampio, alla rivendicazione di una specificità territoriale in contrasto con l’uniformità indotta dai nuovi mercati globali, si risolve spesso in attività seriali che tendono a omogeneizzare territori caratterizzati da un’intrinseca diversità.
La promozione del territorio passa di frequente attraverso la “tematizzazione” del patrimonio storico-culturale, che accompagna un processo di “patrimonializzazione” del Paese, in cui tutto diventa, o è presentato, come patrimonio culturale. Stiamo assistendo alla diffusione di una nuova retorica che interconnette patrimonio culturale e mercato. I monumenti storici sono usati per suggerire una relazione tra merce e territorio. Il passato è utilizzato per assicurare autenticità alla merce e il “nuovo” prodotto commerciale è presentato come un elemento costitutivo della “tradizione”. Questo meccanismo, particolarmente efficace per cibo e vino, viene sempre più spesso utilizzato nella comunicazione pubblicitaria.
Il capitolo affronta l’argomento attraverso l’analisi di una serie di casi particolarmente significativi (il vino di Pompei, tematizzato con riferimento al sito archeologico; la proliferazione di eventi enogastronomici tematizzati; il caso eclatante dell’Expo 2015 a Milano; lo sviluppo di pratiche di consumo e di degustazione in aree d’interesse archeologico e in musei; la diffusione delle “strade del vino”; la moltiplicazione di forme di re-enactment e di  living history e di eventi in cui la storia diventa uno strumento seriale di promozione del territorio. Non mancano, peraltro, anche forme di “mitopoiesi commerciale creativa”.

The Mediterranean refugees crisis, of which Lampedusa (Italy) has become a global symbol, entails an interesting cultural process showing the complex and controversial relationships between heritage, tourism and art industry.
Political narratives, based on the importance of enhancing socio-cultural awareness of migration crisis, offer an effective cover to many of these operations. Migrants and refugees, and their bodies, tend to become objects of tourist and media gaze, though their real stories and memories are hardly taken into account. 
Ai Weiwei’s sophisticated installations with life jackets and rubber boats in Berlin, Vienna and Florence show the deep interrelation between media, marketing and cultural policies.
In such a context the island of Lampedusa, where thousands and thousands of migrants and refugees strive to arrive by sea, has become the setting of movies, TV serials and documentaries, one of which was even proposed for the Oscar awards. The island also hosted the exhibition “Towards the Museum of the Mediterranean dialogue”, displaying objects of migrants dead during their journey, and an underwater exhibition with photos of migrants and refugees.
In Lanzarote (Canary Islands, Spain) the underwater “Atlántico Museum”, inaugurated in 2016, exhibits the “Rift of Lampedusa”, a huge cement sculpture by Jason deCaires Taylor, representing a rubber boat crowded by migrants fleeing from North Africa. Among them there are also dead bodies.
These cases are “good to think” the difficult relationship between tragedies, tourism and art industry, as well as between spectacularization of the sufferance, tourist gaze and cultural policies.

Food and archaeology are important instruments in the development of tourism and the discovery or "invention" of local identity. In keeping with some traits of postmodern society, the culturalization and historical theming of consumption play an increasing role in regional planning and the marketing of tourism. Indeed, history and archaeology help to define interesting forms of hybrid authenticity linking past and present and to connect the postmodern identity of citizens and consumers with the pre-postmodern identity of subjects, heirs to a tradition anchored in the past but often reinvented, which is based on archaeological sites, monuments and museums.
The paper dwells on some significant cases: an “archaeo-experiential” restaurant in Pompeii, with ancient and modern cuisine, located in a new building in Pompeian style; a series of “events” in Rome, where the visit to an underground archaeological site includes an archaeo-gastronomic aperitif; an initiative in Tivoli, combining a visit to the local excavations with a tasting of ancient Roman cuisine; a winery in Tuscany, inside a real archaeological site, which has set up an archaeological museum in its building, organizes themed tastings and promotes various events in its cellar, designed by a famous architect.
In this context we must remark the formation of a new creative entrepreneurship: young archaeologists, art historians and graduates in communication and cultural heritage "invent" new forms of fruition of the past capable of responding to cultural change, intercepting the new tourist demands and filling the void left by the institutions. These activities also give rise to niche food chains, fostered by the attention to local authenticity. It is a small but promising market not only in countries, like Italy, characterized by rich archaeological heritage, long-standing agricultural production, great culinary tradition and growing cultural and gastronomic tourism.
These forms of experimental archaeology are very important at a time of persistent economic crisis, impoverishment of the system of cultural heritage and, above all, long-term unemployment of many young experts in this field, crucial for the country’s development.

The organizational model of the Venice Biennale, today a global brand in the art world, was set up in the late 19th century and consolidated in the 20th century. It was guided by a strategy that sought to convey to the increasing flow of tourists in modern society new forms and enhanced presentations of contemporary art. The paper reconstructs the planning of the post-war relaunch of the International Festival of Contemporary Music (1946-51), which is of relevance to subsequent editions of the Music section.

The protests against the excesses of tourism have been starring the newspapers' covers around the world for several years. In Barcelona, a new neol-ogism, turismofobia, seems to accompany-and qualify-the different manifestations that social unrest takes over some of its effects and main practices. Through a more than two-year ethno-graphic approach to the platform #EnsPlantem, Veïns en Perill d'Extinció, this article aims to show the role played by this type of movements around the application of neoliberal contemporary urban policies linked to touristification process that is living the city and also the neighborhood of Poblenou.

The concept of “residential tourism” has been used since the late 1970s to explain the transformations brought about by the construction of property in tourist areas, and the configuration of two types of human mobility: tourism and lifestyle migration. The research has been carried out in a paradigmatic area of the Mediterranean: the Alicante province (Spain). A total of 872 face-to-face interviews in the respondents’ home were conducted. The operational classification presented here could become a useful tool in resource management and regional planning. It is worth noting that the towns where such process has been more intense experience great difficulties in explaining the complex system of residential mobility types with which they deal on a daily basis. The description of the mobility types here identified can also help to justify the resources necessary for the local administration of these areas where the boundaries between tourism and migration are blurred.

This article examines the growth of Community-Based Tourism within the broader discipline of tourism. New topics in the field have emerged such as responsible tourism, pro-poor tourism, sports tourism and moral impacts of tourism. This phenomenon also reflects the multi-disciplinarity of tourism. In this article, using the Title, Abstract and Keywords (TAK) for instances in which the words (Community-based Tourism, Community Tourism and Community-Based Eco-Tourism) to subsume Community-Based Tourism (CBT), a search was made in various databases and found that CBT as a sub-specialty of tourism started to emerge in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The number of articles published specifically on CBT has been growing phenomenally. The major contribution of this article is that we now know the evolution of CBT and we also now know its trajectory of growth which has been upward. While the number of articles on CBT is growing, there is no journal dedicated solely to CBT.

Over the past four decades, a number of tourism studies’, theories and models have emerged concerning host and guest antagonism (Doxey, 1975), tourism area life cycle (Butler, 1980) and carrying capacity (O’Reilly, 1986). These have historically informed academic research as well as practitioners’ thinking, policy and planning interventions (Barcelona City Council, 2016) – however, these have often appeared to be shifting, rather than addressing the problem. Over the last decade, while many scholars have maintained their interest in the classical debate concerning the impacts of tourism, some have attempted new conceptualisations, while others have converged with the narrative of a number of social movements, and the subsequent coining of the terms ‘overtourism’ and ‘tourismphobia’ have emerged (Goodwin, 2017; Dredge, 2017; Milano, 2017a). Saarinen (2006, p. 1121) was prescient in his assertions that in the face of rapidly growing tourism economies, there is a “need for alternative and more environment and host-friendly practices in development, planning, and policies”.  Moreover, Saarinen’s (2013, p. 10) call that “in order to have tools for setting the limits to growth in tourism in a local-global nexus with less tourism-centric evaluation criteria, stronger governmental and inter-governmental policies and regulations are most probably needed” is evidently more pressing today.

In particular, this Special Issue will offer critical reflections on the contemporary evolution of tourism development and the implication of such processes on people, place and space. It is aimed at developing more nuanced insights into current tourism dynamics and to ultimately foster participatory and collaborative responses to what is evidently a rapidly evolving phenomenon with significant policy and practice implications (Dredge, 2017).

For more details, please see full CFP.

Tourism industry is undergoing a considerable extent of research in recent times due to its high relative influence on the economy of nations. The area is subject to multiple studies done by
scholars as well as practitioners. All destinations provide a unique style of experience to every leisure traveler who has a unique perspective about country that is influenced by destination
brand image. This study develops a variable interaction model that assist in forming destination brand image in context to UK’s tourism industry. It also identifies opportunities of further
improvement in enhancing UK's brand image as a tourist destination.

Florence is one of the major tourist destinations in Italy and its tourist tradition dates back to the Gran Tour time. The Grand Tour played an important role in the construction of its image and still exerts an influence on today’s political and tourist narratives. In Florence, and in other Italian towns, we can discern an advanced theming process: history and heritage are largely used to culturalize consumption. The Grand Tour approach to beauty and history, which was mainly emotional and open to reinvention, has been converted into a postmodern rewriting of the past where even art masterworks are used to transmit emotions and transform consumption into a cultural experience. The centre of Florence has become a specialized tourist district where visitors can perform a complete consumption activity. Tourism is also an important economic driver and the success of Florence had enhanced political discourses emphasizing its role for the country.

Complete conference proceedings for the II Brazilian Congress of Leisure Studies that took place September 2016 in the city of Belém, Brazil.
Anais completos do II Congresso Brasileiro de Estudos do Lazer, realizado em setembro de 2016 na cidade de Belém-PA.