The Price of Consent: Identity Wages in the Games Industry
Abstract
Sociologists have long known that wages are not all that attract highly skilled workers to jobs. Identity rewards in organizations of work are opportunities for workers to affirm valued identities. Past research has found that workers who value these rewards will protect them when they are threatened. Other scholars have shown that managers can use identity rewards to control and elicit cooperation from workers. Another body of scholarship has explored how gendered assumptions and expectations are built into organizations of work. Based on 2 years of field research and 18 interviews with games industry professionals, my research unites these lines of inquiry, by examining how gendered identity rewards entice game developers for game developers to forgo higher wages and more stable conditions in other areas of software development, reinforcing both exploitive class relations and a culture hostile to marginalized workers.
Get full access to this article
View all access and purchase options for this article.
References
Acker Joan. 2000. “Revisiting Class: Thinking from Gender, Race, and Organizations.” Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society 7 (2): 192–214.
Acker Joan. 2006. Class Questions: Feminist Answers. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Alvesson Mats. 2001. “Knowledge Work: Ambiguity, Image, and Identity.” Human Relations 54 (7): 863–86.
Alvesson Mats, Willmott Hugh. 2002. “Identity Regulation as Organizational Control: Producing the Appropriate Individual.” Journal of Management Studies 39 (5): 619–44.
Alvesson Mats, Ashcraft Karen Lee, Thomas Robyn. 2008. “Identity Matters: Reflections on the Construction of Identity Scholarship in Organization Studies.” Organization 15 (1): 5–28.
Anteby Michel. 2008. “Identity Incentives as an Engaging Form of Control: Revisiting Leniencies in an Aeronautic Plant.” Organization Science 19 (2): 202–20.
Arguello Diego. 2019. “Game Companies Are Working Developers Hard: The Pay Isn’t Worth It.” Digital Trends, July 8, 2019. Accessed February 19, 2021, from https://www.digitaltrends.com/gaming/unlivable-wages-in-expensive-cities-are-plaguing-the-video-game-industry/
Brower Robert S., Abolafia Mitchel Y. 1997. “Bureaucratic Politics: The View from Below.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 7 (2): 305–31.
Burawoy Michael. 1979. Manufacturing Consent: Changes in the Labor Process under Monopoly Capitalism. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2019. “Occupational Outlook Handbook, Software Developers.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor. Accessed February 25, 2021, from https://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/software-developers.htm
Connell Raewyn W. 2002. Gender. Stafford, BC: Polity.
Cooper Marianne. 2000. “Being the ‘Go-To Guy’: Fatherhood, Masculinity, and the Organization of Work in Silicon Valley.” Qualitative Sociology 23 (4): 379–405
Du Bois William E. B. 1935. Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880. New York: Free Press.
Duggan Maeve. 2015. Gaming and Gamers. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2015/12/15/gaming-and-gamers/
Edwards Richard. 1979. Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century. New York: Basic Books.
Elliott Jamie. 2010. “Fashion Industry Internships: Exploitation or Experience?” The Guardian, July 24, 2010. Accessed August 4, 2016, from https://www.theguardian.com/money/2010/jul/24/fashion-industry-interns
England Paula. 1992. Comparable Worth: Theories and Evidence. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
England Paula, Allison Paul, Wu Yuxiao. 2007. “Does Bad Pay Cause Occupations to Feminize, Does Feminization Reduce Pay, and How Can We Tell with Longitudinal Data?” Social Science Research 36 (3): 1237–56
Gamasutra Salary Survey. 2014. “Informa.” Accessed January 12, 2015, from
Glaser Barney, Strauss Anselm. 1967. The Development of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago, IL: Aldine Transaction.
Gotsi Manto, Andriopoulos Constantine, Lewis Marianne W., Ingram Amy E. 2010. “Managing Creatives: Paradoxical Approaches to Identity Regulation.” Human Relations 63 (6): 781–805.
Guifre Patti A., Williams Christine L. 1994. “Boundary Lines: Labeling Sexual Harassment in Restaurants.” Gender & Society 8 (3): 378–401.
Hochschild Arlie Russell. 1983. The Managed Heart: The Commercialization of Human Feeling. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.
Johnson Allan G. 2005. The Gender Knot: Unraveling Our Patriarchal Legacy, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Kendall Lori. 2000. “‘Oh No! I’m a Nerd!’’: Hegemonic Masculinity on an Online Forum.” Gender & Society 14 (2): 256–74.
Kimmel Michael. 1994. “Masculinity as Homophobia: Fear, Shame, and Silence in the Construction of Gender Identity.” In Theorizing Masculinities, edited by Brod Harry, Kaufman Michael, 119–41. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Kolb Kenneth H. 2014. Moral Wages: The Emotional Dilemmas of Victim Advocacy and Counseling. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.
Kleinman Sherryl. 2007. Feminist Fieldwork Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Kunda Gideon. 1992. Engineering Culture: Control and Commitment in a High-Tech Corporation. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Lopez-Fernandez Olatz A., Williams Jess, Kuss Daria J. 2019. “Measuring Female Gaming: Gamer Profile, Predictors, Prevalence, and Characteristics from Psychological and Gender Perspectives.” Frontiers in Psychology 10: 898. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00898
Maines David R. 1977. “Social Organization and Social Structure in Symbolic Interactionist Thought.” Annual Review of Sociology 3: 235–59. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2945937
McCann Pol Dominic, Plummer David, Minichiello Victor. 2010. “Being the Butt of the Joke: Homophobic Humor, Male Identity, and Its Connection to Emotional and Physical Violence for Men.” Health Sociology Review 19 (4): 505–21.
McIntosh Peggy. 1989. “Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack.” Peace and Freedom Magazine, July/August, 10–2.
Miller Patrick, Bulkley Brad. 2013. “Game Developer Quality of Life Survey.” Game Developer 20 (3): 13–20.
Mumby Dennis K. 1998. “Organizing Men: Power, Discourse, and the Social Construction of Masculinity(s) in the Workplace.” Communication Theory 8 (2): 164–83.
Nat Renee. 2016. “Modern Slaves? The Dark Side of the Fashion Industry.” Eluxe Magazine, February 3, 2016. Accessed March 9, 2017, from http://eluxemagazine.com/magazine/dark-side-of-the-fashion-industry/
Pascoe Cheri J. 2007. Dude, You’re a Fag: Masculinity and Sexuality in High School. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.
Ridgeway Cecilia L. 1997. “Interaction and the Conservation of Gender Inequality: Considering Employment.” American Sociological Review 62 (2): 218–35.
Ridgeway Cecilia L. 2001. “Gender, Status, and Leadership.” Journal of Social Issues 57 (4): 637–55.
Roy Donald F. 1959. “‘Banana Time’: Job Satisfaction and Informal Interaction.” Human Organization 18 (4): 158–68.
Scimeca Dennis. 2013. “The Gender Inequality in Core Gaming is Worse than You Think.” Venture Beat, September 19, 2013. Accessed August 3, 2014, from http://venturebeat.com/2013/09/19/gender-inequality/
Shaw Adrienne. 2010. “What Is Video Game Culture? Cultural Studies and Game Studies.” Games and Culture 5 (4): 403–24.
Shaw Adrienne. 2011. “Do You Identify as a Gamer? Gender, Race, Sexuality, and Gamer Identity.” New Media & Society 14 (1): 28–44.
Schrock Douglas, Schwalbe Michael. 2009. “Men, Masculinity, and Manhood Acts.” Annual Review of Sociology 35: 277–95. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27800079
Schwalbe Michael. 2005. “Identity Stakes, Manhood Acts, and the Dynamics of Accountability.” In Studies in Symbolic Interaction, edited by Denzin Norman K., Vol. 28, 65–81. Bingley, England: Emerald Group Publishing Ltd.
Schwalbe Michael. 2008. Rigging the Game: How Inequality is Reproduced in Everyday Life. New York: Oxford University Press.
Schwalbe Michael. 2014. Manhood Acts: Gender and the Practices of Domination. New York: Routledge.
Schwalbe Michael, Mason-Schrock Douglas. 1996. “Identity Work as Group Process.” Advances in Group Processes 13: 113–47.
Schwalbe Michael, McTague Tricia, Parrotta Kylie. 2016. “Identity Contests and the Negotiation of Organizational Change.” Advances in Group Processes 33: 57–92.
Stack Overflow. 2018. “Developer Survey Results 2018.” Accessed February 25, 2021, from https://insights.stackoverflow.com/survey/2018/#overview
Staples William G., Staples Clifford L. 2001. Power Profits and Patriarchy: The Social Organization of Work at a British Metal Trades Firm, 1791–1922. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Strauss Anselm. 1978. Negotiations: Varieties, Contexts, Processes, and Social Order. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Takahashi Dean. 2017. “Indeed: U.S. Game Developer Job Postings Have Dropped 65% Since 2014.” Venture Beat, January, 10, 2017. Accessed October 10, 2020, from https://venturebeat.com/2017/01/10/indeed-u-s-game-developer-job-postings-have-dropped-65-since-2014/
Tokumitsu Miya. 2014. “In the Name of Love.” Jacobin, January 12, 2014. Accessed October 3, 2014, from https://www.jacobinmag.com/2014/01/in-the-name-of-love/
United States Department of Labor. 2021. “Overtime Pay.” Accessed June 29, 2021, from https://www.dol.gov/agencies/whd/overtime
Weststar Johanna, Legault Marie-Josèe, Gose Chandell, O’Meara. Vicki 2016. Developer Satisfaction Survey 2014 & 2015: Diversity in the Game Industry Report. Toronto, Canada: International Game Developers Association.
Williams Dmitri, Yee Nick, Caplan Scott E. 2008. “Who Plays, How Much, and Why? Debunking the Stereotypical Gamer Profile.” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 13 (4): 993–1018.
Williams Ian. 2013. “‘You Can Sleep Here All Night’: Video Games and Labor.” Jacobin, November 13, 2013. Accessed October 15, 2014, from https://www.jacobinmag.com/2013/11/video-game-industry/
Williams Ian, Walker Austin. 2014. “Working for the Love of the Game: The Problem with Blizzard’s Recruitment Video.” Paste Magazine, August, 25, 2014. Accessed October 15, 2014, from https://www.pastemagazine.com/articles/2014/08/working-for-the-love-of-the-game-the-problems-with.html
Biographies
Alison R. Buck studies the reproduction of racial and gender inequality across a variety of settings, from organizations of work to college classrooms. She is Program Coordinator and Assistant Professor of Sociology at Eastern Kentucky University where she teaches courses on gender, race, sexualities, and intersectionality.
Cite article
Cite article
Cite article
OR
Download to reference manager
If you have citation software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice
Information, rights and permissions
Information
Published In
Article first published online: March 20, 2022
Issue published: December 2022
Keywords
Authors
Metrics and citations
Metrics
Journals metrics
This article was published in Journal of Contemporary Ethnography.
VIEW ALL JOURNAL METRICSArticle usage*
Total views and downloads: 381
*Article usage tracking started in December 2016
Articles citing this one
Receive email alerts when this article is cited
Web of Science: 0
Crossref: 0
There are no citing articles to show.
Figures and tables
Figures & Media
Tables
View Options
Get access
Access options
If you have access to journal content via a personal subscription, university, library, employer or society, select from the options below:
loading institutional access options
Alternatively, view purchase options below:
Purchase 24 hour online access to view and download content.
Access journal content via a DeepDyve subscription or find out more about this option.
