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Article

NATO vs. SCO: A Comparative Study of Outside Powers’ Military Presence in Central Asia and the Gulf

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Pages 438-456 | Published online: 04 Feb 2019
 

Abstract

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) both have geopolitical interests in Central Asia and the Gulf. The former is a military alliance, whose members have built substantial presence in the Greater Middle East, including the US military presence in Afghanistan, Djibouti, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Bahrain and Oman; the British military presence in Afghanistan and Bahrain; the French military presence in Afghanistan, Djibouti and the UAE. In comparison, SCO is a political bloc, whose members are at a low level of military integration. Like Russia’s military presence in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, China has logistics base in Djibouti; India has military presence in Tajikistan. The three SCO members enjoy better geographical proximality, while the three NATO members are stronger in military deployments and power projection capabilities. The SCO major powers have consolidated their respective land power in Central Asia, while NATO members have obtained both land power in Afghanistan and marine power in the Gulf. While the SCO’s and NATO’s respective military positions have been strengthened, Central Asia and the Gulf are faced with serious economic, political and social problems and inter-state conflict. In the light of this, the military presence of outside NATO and SCO powers may rest on a weak foundation and may face various hurdles in the future.

Acknowledgement

This paper was submitted to the Gulf Research Meeting held by the Gulf Research Centre Cambridge, at the University of Cambridge from July 31 to 3 August 2018. Degang Sun would like to express his sincere appreciation to Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Harvard University.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

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2 ‘US diplomatic presence in Iraq shrinking fast’, (21 March 2013), available at: http://www.philstar.com/breaking-news/2013/03/21/922357/us-diplomatic-presence-iraq-shrinking-fast

3 B. Torreon, ‘Instances of use of United States armed forces abroad, 1798-2014’, Congressional Research Service, (15 September 2014), p. 33.

4 The White House, National Security Strategy, 2015, Washington DC, (February 2015), p. 9.

5 M. Tawfeeq, ‘US will reduce troop levels in Iraq, Baghdad says’, CNN, (6 February 2018), available at: https://edition.cnn.com/2018/02/06/middleeast/american-troops-iraq-intl/index.html

6 D. Cassata, ‘US plans significant military presence in Kuwait’, Times of Israel, (19 June 2012).

7 Ibid.

8 ‘US to retain Mideast role’, Kuwait Times, (12 December 2012).

9 J. Haltiwanger, ‘Trump’s secret war? US military’s presence In Middle East has grown 33 percent in past four months’, (21 November 2017).

10 W. Arkin, Code Names: Deciphering U.S. Military Plans, Programs and Operations in the 9/11 World (Hanover: Steerforth Press, 2005), p. 190.

11 R. Looney, ed., Handbook of US-Middle East Relations: Formative Factors and Regional Perspectives (London and New York: Routledge, 2009), p. 395.

12 T. Shanker and S. Myers, ‘US planning troop buildup in Gulf after exit from Iraq’, New York Times, (29 October 2011).

13 K. Katzman, ‘Bahrain: key issues for US policy’, CRS Report for Congress, (24 March 2005), p. 3.

14 L. Korb and I. Moss, Moving Beyond the Carter Doctrine: Rethinking the U.S. Military Presence in the Persian Gulf (New York: Century Foundation Report, 2008), p. 3.

15 W. Arkin, Code Names: Deciphering U.S. Military Plans, Programs and Operations in the 9/11 World (Hanover: Steerforth Press, 2005), p. 80.

16 ‘American military bases in Middle East: why does US have them?’ (30 January 2018), available at: https://www.presstv.com/Detail/2018/01/30/550726/How-many-military-bases-US-has-in-Middle-East

17 White House, ‘Fact sheet: the United States-UAE bilateral relationship’, (February 2006), available at: whitehouse.com

18 ‘American military bases in Middle East: why does US have them?’ (30 January 2018).

19 R. Looney, ed., Handbook of US-Middle East Relations: Formative Factors and Regional Perspectives (London and New York: Routledge, 2009), p. 426.

20 ‘American military bases in Middle East: why does US have them?’ (30 January 2018).

21 R. Harkavy, Strategic Basing and the Great Powers, 1200-2000 (New York: Routledge, 2007), p. 149.

22 D. Stringer, ‘UK mulls upping military presence in the Hormuz’, Navy Times, (24 January 2012), available at: http://www.navytimes.com/news/2012/01/ap-uk-mulls-upping-presence-in-hormuz-012412/

23 G. Stansfield and S. Kelly, ‘A return to east of Suez? UK military deployment to the Gulf’, RUSI Briefing Paper, (April 2013), pp. 2-4.

24 ‘Britain to open new military base in Bahrain’, The Peninsula, (7 December 2014).

25 Ibid.

26 ‘Bahrain hosts first British permanent military base in Gulf’, Al-Arabiya, (5 April 2018), available at: http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/gulf/2018/04/05/Bahrain-hosts-first-British-permanent-military-base-in-Gulf.html

27 M. Saltmarsh, “France opens first military bases in the Gulf’, New York Times, (26 May 2009).

29 ‘La France crée une base militaire face à l’Iran’, Le Figaro, (15 January 2008).

30 ‘Iran slams UAE over French military base’, Tehran Times, (27 May 2009).

31 D. Stringer, ‘UK mulls upping military presence in the Hormuz’, Navy Times, (24 January 2012).

32 ‘Sarkozy opens French military base in Abu Dhabi’, France24, (26 May 2009), available at: http://www.france24.com/en/20090526-sarkozy-inaugurates-frances-first-gulf-base-abu-dhabi-military

33 ‘French bases in UAE’, (26 May 2009).

34 T. Landford, 9/11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2012), p. 45.

35 O. Oliker and T. Szayna, eds., Faultlines of Conflict in Central Asia and the South Caucasus: Implications for the US Army, (Santa Monica, Calif: Rand Corporation, MG-1598, 2003), p. 253.

36 ‘International security assistance force’, available at: https://www.nato.int/isaf/topics/chronology/index.html

37 ‘NATO’s troops that stationed in Afghanistan would increase from 13 thousand to 16 thousand’, (10 November 2017), available at: http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2017-11-10/doc-ifynsait6887608.shtml

38 J. Haltiwanger, ‘Trump’s secret war? US military’s presence In Middle East has grown 33 percent in past four months’, (21 November 2017).

39 S. Akbarzadeh, ‘Keeping Central Asia stable’, Third World Quarterly 25(4), (2004), p. 689.

40 T. Landford, 9/11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2012), p. 104.

41 S. Cornell, ‘The United States and Central Asia: in the steppes to stay?’ Cambridge Review of International Affairs 17(2), (2004), p. 241.

42 P. Duncan, ‘Russia, NATO and the ‘war on terror’: competition and co-operation in Central Asia after 11 September 2001’, in O. Tanrisever, ed., Afghanistan and Central Asia: NATO’s Role in Regional Security since 9/11 (Washington DC: IOS Press, 2013), p. 138.

43 E. Troitskiy, ‘US policy in Central Asia and regional security’, Global Security 21(3), (July 2007), p. 427.

44 T. Landford, 9/11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2012), p. 104.

45 Ibid., p. 183.

46 Z. Chotaev, ‘The great powers in Central Asia: policies of the US and Russia’, in O. Tanrisever, ed., Afghanistan and Central Asia: NATO’s Role in Regional Security since 9/11 (Washington DC: IOS Press, 2013), p. 151.

47 US Department of Defense, ‘Report on progress toward security and stability in Afghanistan’, Report to Congress, (November 2012), p. 147.

48 H. Katouzian and H. Shahidi, Iran in the 21st Century: Politics, Economics and Conflict (London and New York: Routledge, 2008), p. 123.

49 Bиадимир Соиовьев, Бек Oрозаииев.Ycпехи коииективизации—Pоccии удаиоcь договоритьcя cучаcтниками OдKБ// KоммерСантъ.№ 139/п (4194) от 03.08.2009.

50 H. Katouzian and H. Shahidi, Iran in the 21st Century: Politics, Economics and Conflict (London and New York: Routledge, 2008), pp. 131-132.

51 R. Harkavy, Strategic Basing and the Great Powers, 1200-2000 (New York: Routledge, 2007), p. 148.

52 ‘Tajikistan extends Russia's military presence’, available at: https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/tajikistan-extends-russias-military-presence

53 N. Bahrom, ‘Kremlin’s heightened military interest in Tajikistan raises ‘Greater Russia’ alarm’, available at: http://central.asia-news.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_ca/features/2018/01/19/feature-02

54 Military Observer, Strategic Pivot: The Global 50 Military Bases (Beijing: Chemical Industry Press, 2015), p. 80.

55 Ibid., pp. 80-81.

56 ‘Farkhor air base’, available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farkhor_Air_Base

57 N. Walsh, ‘India flexes its muscles with first foreign military base’, The Guardian, (26 April 2006).

58 R. Cheng, ‘India is building its first overseas military base’, World Affairs Magazine, No. 23, (2003), p. 8.

59 R. Pandit, ‘Indian forces get foothold in Central Asia’, Times of India, (17 July 2007).

60 ‘India facing eviction from Tajikistan military base?’, available at: http://www.india-defence.com/reports-3550

61 R. Sharma, ‘India’s Ayni military base in Tajikistan is Russia-locked’, (26 October 2012), available at: http://indrus.in/articles/2012/10/26/indias_ayni_military_base_in_tajikistan_is_russia-locked_18661.html

62 R Muzaleysky, ‘India fails to gain a military foothold in Tajikistan’, (2 February 2011), available at: http://www.cacianalyst.org/?q=node/5485

63 K Toktomushev, ‘China’s military base in Afghanistan: is China really building a military base in the northern province of Afghanistan?’ The Diplomat, (18 January 2018).

64 S. Nebehay, ‘US warns on Russia’s new space weapons’, 2018, Reuters, available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Liberation_Army_Support_Base_in_Djibouti

65 J. Fulton, ‘Could the SCO expand into the Middle East?’ Qatar Tribune, (26 February 2018).

Additional information

Funding

The authors are indebted to China’s Ministry of Education program “Theoretical and Empirical Studies of China’s Participation in the Middle East Security Affairs” (16JJDGJW011), to the “Shu Guang” Project of Shanghai Municipal Education Commission and Shanghai Education Development Foundation (15SG29).

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