INTRODUCTION
Toxoplasma gondii infection is linked to some mood and psychiatric disorders (
1,
2). Furthermore, recent evidence indicated that reactivation of chronic
T. gondii infection induces depression-related behaviors in mice (
3). As the pathogenesis of infection relies largely upon host immunity, after
T. gondii infection, peripheral macrophages and lymphocytes quickly become activated to kill intracellular tachyzoites (
4). Sickness and depression-related behaviors are mediated by proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) (
5–7). However, the distinction between sickness and depressive symptoms in
T. gondii infection remains unclear. Mice given an experimental immune challenge with bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) or
Mycobacterium bovis BCG vaccines exhibited behaviors specific for sickness and depression-like behaviors. For example, mice exhibited sickness symptoms in the form of reduced body weight and locomotor activity and depressive symptoms such as a reduced preference for sucrose and lower motility in forced-swim and tail suspension tests (
8,
9).
Genes shown to promote major depressive disorder in humans were hypothesized to be associated with successful immune responses, protection from microbes, and enhanced survival in the ancestral environment. Therefore, specific depressive symptoms have been suggested to play roles in pathogen host defense (
7). IFN-γ has been linked to depressive symptoms by inducing indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) activation and depleting tryptophan (Trp), the only known precursor of serotonin. Increased serum IFN-γ levels in response to peripheral immune stimulation enhanced cerebral IDO activity, which may reduce Trp levels in the brains of mice (
10,
11). In addition, Trp depletion is caused by the stress-induced activation of tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO), a hepatic enzyme, and/or the ubiquitous enzyme IDO (
1,
2,
4,
5). IDO catabolizes Trp into the neurotoxic metabolites kynurenine (Kyn) and kynurenic acid (
12,
13). Although the catabolism of Trp is stimulated by the induction of TDO and IDO, it is still argued that a reduction in Trp blood levels under conditions of stress and inflammation decreases the formation of cerebral serotonin (
13). Furthermore, circulating Kyn crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB), whereby it elevates cerebral Kyn levels (
14). Hence, circulating Trp can cross the BBB by competing with other amino acids (
13). Minocycline (Mino) (expanded-spectrum tetracycline) is widely used to block the expression of proinflammatory cytokines in peripheral and central organs (
15–17) and prevent ischemic neuronal death (
18,
19). 1-Methyl-
dl-tryptophan (1-
dl-MT) has become a reference drug for blocking IDO by competing with Trp. However, only 1-
l-MT inhibits the enzyme activity of IDO, while 1-
d-MT does not (
20). Unlike Mino, 1-
dl-MT blocks IDO-mediated immune events in rheumatoid arthritis (
21–23) and inhibits
T. gondii multiplication
in vivo (
20,
24). IDO activation in the brain has been proposed to induce Kyn, which may contribute to the depressive symptoms of epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, and cerebral malaria (
25–27).
We selected BALB/c mice to examine immune enhancement, as C57BL/6 mice have an insufficient intracerebral immune response (
28,
29). BALB/c mice are considered genetically resistant to
T. gondii infection and, instead of developing acute fatal toxoplasmic encephalitis, establish a chronic latent infection (
30–32). Therefore, we predict that BALB/c mice will exhibit more depression-like behaviors than sickness symptoms. We hypothesized that
T. gondii-induced depressive behaviors were based on immune enhancement in terms of IFN-γ production, the activation of IDO, and the disruption of serotonergic neurotransmission. To test this hypothesis, we used different approaches to investigate sickness (clinical score and locomotor activity) and depressive (anhedonic and despair-like) behaviors during the acute stage of
T. gondii infection in wild-type and IFN-γ-deficient mice (BALB/c background) in the context of treatment with Mino or 1-
dl-MT to inhibit inflammation or block IDO functions, respectively. Our findings provide insight into immune enhancement associated with the development of anhedonic and despair-like behaviors during the acute stage of
T. gondii infection.
DISCUSSION
Causes of depression do not stem from a single source; rather, depression is likely to be caused by a combination of factors. Perpetuation of the neurotropic parasite
T. gondii may further complicate this syndrome. In the present study, we observed anhedonic and despair-like behaviors during the acute stage of
T. gondii infection. Therefore, immune enhancement may be a prerequisite for the development of such a depressive phenotype. Here, we hypothesized that the activation of host immunity mediates depression-like behaviors in
T. gondii-infected mice. Our results support the view that interactions of the immune system and IFN-γ, IDO, and Trp metabolism play crucial roles in developing
T. gondii-induced depression-like behaviors. In animal models, studies of the Kyn pathway and the Trp catabolic shunt indicate that these mechanisms are conserved not only between humans and rodents but also in lower organisms such as yeast (
34). Several lines of evidence illustrate that depression-like behavior is associated with an enhancement of Trp catabolism caused by either inflammation or the release of proinflammatory cytokines (
34,
35). Investigation of this pathway following infection with a chronic pathogen, such as
T. gondii, will likely continue to advance our understanding of mechanisms by which neurotropic parasites induce some psychiatric disorders (
36). The induction of depressive-like behaviors in
T. gondii-infected mice and enhancement of Trp catabolism toward Kyn may be relevant to interpreting studies of psychobehavioral disorders in
T. gondii-infected humans.
In the present study,
T. gondii infection induced depression-like behavior in the forms of anhedonic and despair-like behaviors in mice during the acute stage. Additionally, sickness behavior was observed in mice following acute infection. As behavioral symptoms of sickness and depression are triggered by proinflammatory cytokines (
17), it may be difficult to determine whether
T. gondii directly induced depression-like behavior or whether generalized inflammatory responses induced by infection triggered behavioral changes. Although both sickness and depression-like behaviors are induced by the same proinflammatory cytokines, IDO induction has been proposed to lie at the interface between chronic inflammatory disease and depression (
17). Although
T. gondii-infected IFN-γ
−/− mice showed clinical scores similar to those of infected wild-type mice, infected IFN-γ
−/− mice did not exhibit anhedonic behavior (reduced sucrose preference) at 6 to 9 dpi, except for 10 dpi, compared with uninfected IFN-γ
−/− mice. At 10 dpi, both wild-type BALB/c and IFN-γ
−/− mice showed comparably severe clinical symptoms following infection. These symptoms at 10 dpi were categorized as sickness-related symptoms. Additionally, the locomotor activity of IFN-γ
−/− mice infected with
T. gondii was reduced compared with that of infected wild-type BALB/c mice. In fact, IFN-γ
−/− mice showed a reduced intake of both water and sucrose (total fluid intake), which ranges from 0 to 2 ml of each bottle during 24 h. Actually, these IFN-γ
−/− mice mostly succumbed after 10 days of infection. Thus, the severe reduction of locomotor activity may result in a reduced sucrose preference (or total fluid intake) in IFN-γ
−/− mice infected with
T. gondii at 10 dpi. It should be noted that uninfected IFN-γ
−/− mice showed a longer duration of immobility in the FST than did uninfected wild-type mice. Furthermore,
T. gondii infection did not increase the duration of immobility in IFN-γ
−/− mice at 10 dpi compared with uninfected IFN-γ
−/− mice (
Fig. 2C). This result suggests that sickness and anhedonic behaviors may occur in
T. gondii-infected mice by independent mechanisms. However, at present, it is unclear why the genetic deletion of IFN-γ induced despair behavior (increased duration of immobility in the FST) in uninfected IFN-γ
−/− mice compared with uninfected wild-type mice. Perhaps, the relationship between IFN-γ and Trp metabolism may be linked to the immunogenetics of major depression, as reported previously in some correlation studies (
11). Similarly, a deficiency of Toll-like receptor 2 was found to be associated with the induction of schizophrenia-like symptoms in mice (
37). Collectively, these results suggest that the deficiency of an immunity-related gene (IRG), such as IFN-γ, was associated with despair-like and anhedonic behaviors in uninfected mice.
IFN-γ is essential for host defense mechanisms and the survival of mice during
T. gondii infection. IFN-γ-deficient mice succumb to acute infection (
4). Furthermore, mice lacking IL-12 or T cells that regulate or produce IFN-γ, respectively, do not survive the chronic stage of
T. gondii infection (
38–40). IFN-γ can suppress symptoms in
T. gondii infection and, in fact, can inhibit
T. gondii proliferation through various mechanisms, including (i) the depletion of arginine and the production of free radical nitric oxide via enzymatic activation (
41); (ii) the disruption of parasitophorous vacuoles via IFN-γ-inducible genes, such as IRGs and guanylate-binding proteins (GBPs), in murine macrophages (
42–44); or (iii) the starvation of an essential amino acid, Trp, mediated through IDO activity, as shown in human fibroblasts (
45), but a direct effect of IDO on parasites in mice remains unclear. Thus, the activation of IFN-γ and IDO was associated with the depletion of Trp, suggesting a correlation between host defense mechanisms and the display of anhedonic and despair-like behaviors. Therefore, it is plausible that anhedonic and despair-like behaviors were dependent on IFN-γ or IDO activation rather than simply being linked to sickness behaviors.
Aside from the association of sickness symptoms with depression-like behavior during the acute stage of
T. gondii infection, our findings support a role for the Trp-to-Kyn shunt in depression pathophysiology induced by
T. gondii infection. Anhedonic and despair-like behaviors during the acute stage were present with low 5-HT levels (associated with a high Kyn/Trp ratio in plasma and brain) and normal 5-HT turnover. However, such behaviors were not displayed at 30 dpi in the context of low brain 5-HT and DA levels. In support of these results, we found that Kyn/Trp ratios in the brain of infected mice at 60 dpi did not change from those in control uninfected mice, indicating lower IDO activity in the chronic stage (
3). Thus, the development of anhedonic and despair-like behaviors may not be simply dependent on lower levels of serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission during the acute stage of
T. gondii infection in mice. It has been reported that IDO induction, Trp degradation, and Kyn formation are completely absent in
T. gondii-infected IFN-γ-deficient mice (
46,
47). Our data also confirmed the importance of IFN-γ for IDO activity induction and the resultant depression-like behaviors. Since IFN-γ-mediated IDO activation may induce such behaviors in mice following infection with
T. gondii during the acute stage,
T. gondii infection can induce changes in Trp metabolism via proinflammatory cytokines, especially IFN-γ.
However, at present, it is unclear why the sustained decreases in DA and 5-HT levels were not reflected in the precipitation of anhedonic and despair-like symptoms in T. gondii-infected mice during chronic infection. On the other hand, low levels of 5-HT and DA coexisted with anhedonic and despair-like behaviors during acute infection. Thus, the contribution of DA and 5-HT to depression-like behaviors could not be concluded. Compared with uninfected mice, the unchanged 5-HT/Trp ratio and serotonin turnover and the higher Kyn/Trp ratio indicated enhanced Trp catabolism toward Kyn in infected mice during acute infection. Together, these findings suggest that enhanced Trp catabolism toward Kyn resulting from the inflammatory response, IFN-γ action, and IDO activity-dependent mechanisms of T. gondii infection may be related to the appearance of anhedonic and despair-like behaviors during acute infection.
In the present study, Mino abrogated
T. gondii-induced anhedonic and despair-like behaviors; it also normalized Kyn/Trp ratios in the brain and plasma in
T. gondii-infected mice. It is well known that proinflammatory cytokines are involved in depression-like behaviors through the generation of a neuroreactive Trp metabolite, Kyn. A Kyn metabolite, quinolinic acid, acts as an
N-methyl-
d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor agonist (
48) and is implicated in the development of core symptoms of depression-like anhedonia and behavioral despair following the peripheral administration of cytokine-inducing bacterial LPS (
8). Our data showed that treatment with Mino inhibited IDO expression in the brains of
T. gondii-infected mice, resulting in the normalization of Kyn/Trp ratios in both the plasma and brains of infected mice. Mino, a prototype anti-inflammatory drug, was used to prevent ischemic neuronal death. In addition, Mino protects neurons from glutamate toxicity and blocks the expression of proinflammatory cytokines in both peripheral and central organs (
17–19). Mino is also a selective inhibitor of microglia activation, and it inhibits apoptosis by decreasing the levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, and their converting enzymes caspase 1 and caspase 3 (
49,
50). Additionally, Mino reduced the permeability of the BBB by inhibiting IL-1β, TNF-α, matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2), MMP-9, and vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM) expression as well as reducing the transmigration of T cells across the fibronectin matrix barrier (
51,
52). Therefore, Mino may be a potential therapeutic for psychiatric diseases, including early schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, Huntington disease, and Parkinson's disease (
49,
50,
52–54,
72). Activated microglia contribute to neuronal apoptosis; thus, the inhibition of microglia activation by Mino may represent a novel therapeutic strategy for treating neuronal apoptosis in cases of toxoplasmic encephalitis (
55). Mino also prevented anhedonia and sickness behavior in mice challenged with LPS (
56). Although LPS induces sickness behaviors followed by depression-like behaviors, this appeared within a relatively short time course compared with immune challenge with the BCG vaccine (
9,
57) or
T. gondii infection. In the present study, we treated
T. gondii-infected mice with Mino for 4 days at doses of 10 mg/kg of body weight intraperitoneally (i.p.). Our treatment regimen decreased clinical symptoms induced by infection without inducing side effects. Furthermore, Mino decreased the brain parasite burden (
Fig. 5A), thus conferring the strongest protective effect against
T. gondii in murine microglia and astrocyte cells (
Fig. 4B and
C)
. T. gondii tachyzoites invade murine microglia, astrocytes, and neurons; thereafter, the parasite forms cysts within these cells (
58). Our data for parasite growth indicated that microglia have 17 times the ability of astrocytes to control
T. gondii. Within the brain, microglia are reported to be the major effector cells for the prevention of
T. gondii tachyzoite proliferation (
58). At the neuronal level, Mino salvaged glutamate toxicity in cultured primary neurons (
16). Thus, Mino may have the potential to control acute toxoplasmosis, while the anti-
Toxoplasma mechanism of Mino is still unknown.
1-
dl-MT was previously used as a reference drug for blocking IDO activity in human and murine cells (
21,
23,
59). In clinical trials, 1-
dl-MT has been used as a vaccine adjuvant and an add-on immunotherapeutic agent for cancer patients (
60). As IDO triggers Trp depletion in the cellular microenvironment, it can also inhibit the proliferation of T cells and permit tumor cells to escape the immune system (
61). Therefore, IDO inhibition by 1-
dl-MT reverses the immunosuppressive effects of IDO (
62). Interestingly, chronic treatment with 1-
l-MT or 1-
dl-MT results in controversial antiparasitic activity, but subchronic treatment exerts some anti-
Toxoplasma activity (
20,
24). Furthermore, IDO
−/− mice and mice with IDO inhibited by 1-
dl-MT exhibit reduced
T. gondii mRNA expression in the lungs (
24). In our study, 1-
dl-MT treatment attenuated anhedonic and despair-like behaviors in
T. gondii-infected mice without an obvious effect on proinflammatory cytokine expression, suggesting that the effect of 1-
dl-MT is independent of proinflammatory cytokine expression. Furthermore, IDO activity may be involved in anhedonic and despair-like behaviors, and such behaviors are unlikely to be linked to cytokine production in
T. gondii-infected mice. Our results indicate that 1-
dl-MT, like Mino, significantly reduced the parasite load
in vivo and
in vitro (
Fig. 8). It would be of interest in future studies to examine mechanisms underlying the ability of Mino and 1-
dl-MT to control the growth of
T. gondii.
In summary, the present study suggests that depression-like behaviors are likely mediated by host defense mechanisms against
T. gondii infection. As a host immune response against acute
T. gondii infection, IFN-γ produced by T cells or natural killer cells stimulates IDO activity. Metabolites of IDO activity, Trp to Kyn, resulted in depression-like behaviors. Treatment with Mino and 1-
dl-MT ameliorated
T. gondii-induced anhedonic and despair-like behaviors, suggesting the potential of this drug to treat core depression symptoms. As these drugs are highly lipid soluble and capable of penetrating the BBB (
17), they may be of potential interest for future clinical studies. Since these drugs inhibit
Toxoplasma growth, their use for
T. gondii infection may be beneficial. Moreover, their effect was associated with symptomatic relief of anhedonia and despair as well as an improvement of clinical symptoms or locomotor activity. Our results demonstrate that immune enhancement in response to infection of immunocompetent mice with
T. gondii resulted in IFN-γ production, IDO activation, and inflammation associated with sickness and anhedonic and despair-like behaviors. In contrast, after inhibition of IFN-γ production, sickness symptoms were displayed without the other behaviors. The inactivation of IDO improved clinical symptoms and depression-like behaviors. In conclusion, host defense mechanisms against
T. gondii infection may be involved in anhedonic and despair-like behaviors in mice.