FlashReports
Let’s talk about race, Baby! When Whites’ and Blacks’ interracial contact experiences diverge☆,☆☆
Introduction
A fully functional multiracial society cannot be achieved without a sense of history and open, honest dialogue. (Cornel West, 1999)
Many contemporary socio-political issues such as immigration policies, academic achievement, and health disparities are shaped by race. Accordingly, resolving these issues will require an open, honest dialogue about race, as suggested in the epigraph by Cornel West. Yet, Americans are hesitant to talk about race, particularly in inter-ethnic forums—the very forums in which such dialogue may have the most impact. One reason why people may be hesitant to talk about race in inter-ethnic forums is because such encounters are stressful. Indeed, research shows that many Whites are anxious during interracial contact (Blascovich et al., 2001, Ickes, 1984, Shelton and Richeson, 2006, Stephan and Stephan, 2001), and are hesitant to mention race during these interactions, even when it is relevant and reasonable to do so (Norton et al., 2006, Pollock, 2004). Considerably less research, however, examines the extent to which racial minorities find interracial contact stressful (Mendoza-Denton et al., 2002, Plant, 2004); and, even less research investigates Whites’ and Blacks’ experiences of anxiety during interracial contact in tandem (but see Ickes, 1984, Shelton, 2003, Shelton et al., 2005). The purpose of the present study was to examine this question: Are interracial interactions as stressful for Blacks as they are for Whites? And, does discussing a race-related topic moderate interracial contact stress?
The literature asserts that interracial interactions are stressful, especially for members of dominant socio-cultural groups. Indeed, research has found that Whites feel anxious during even brief interracial encounters (Crocker, Major, & Steele, 1998), in part due to negative racial attitudes and/or concerns about appearing prejudiced (Dunton and Fazio, 1997, Plant and Devine, 1998, Vorauer et al., 2000). These anxieties can “leak” into behavior; Whites often fidget, blink excessively, increase interpersonal distance, and avert their eye-gaze during interracial, compared with same-race, encounters (Dovidio et al., 1997, Fazio et al., 1995, McConnell and Leibold, 2001, Word et al., 1974).
Similarly, research suggests that interracial contact may be stressful for members of racial minority groups. Specifically, racial minorities’ concerns about being the target of prejudice may trigger anxiety (Clark et al., 1999, Major and O’Brien, 2005, Mendoza-Denton et al., 2002, Tropp, 2003). For instance, Shelton (2003) found that Blacks who expected White interaction partners to be prejudiced against them fidgeted more during interracial interactions than Black participants not given this expectancy. Although suggestive, the extent to which racial minorities experience anxiety during interracial interactions more generally remains largely unknown. Indeed, with few exceptions (e.g., Page-Gould et al., in press, Shelton et al., 2005, Vorauer and Kumhyr, 2001), studies have not examined both Whites’ and racial minorities’ responses during interracial encounters.
There is reason to predict, however, that Blacks may experience less anxiety during interracial interactions than Whites. Because Blacks are in the numerical minority in many social contexts, they should have considerably more experience with interracial contact than do Whites. Indeed, daily diary studies that document college students’ interracial contact on a predominantly White campus revealed that, whereas most White students have little to no interracial contact in their day-to-day interactions, close to half of Black students’ interactions are with racial outgroup members (Mallett, submitted for publication, Nezlek, 2007). Consequently, interracial contact should be more familiar and less stressful for Blacks than Whites.
The present work also considers the role of race-related discussions in shaping individuals’ experiences. Research examining behavior during interracial interactions typically involves benign discussion topics (e.g., essential items to bring to college; Dovidio et al., 1997), interview contexts (e.g., Word et al., 1974), or game-playing (e.g., Blascovich et al., 2001, Hyers and Swim, 1998). This research suggests that race-related discussions are not necessary for Whites to experience intergroup anxiety. Nevertheless, race-related discussions might amplify interracial anxiety and make even same-race interactions uncomfortable. To the extent that Whites are concerned about appearing prejudiced, race-related discussions may present a unique opportunity to appear prejudiced and, consequently, be quite stressful.
Similarly, the effects of race-related discussions on Blacks’ interaction experiences are unknown. We predict that race-related discussions may attenuate intergroup anxiety for Blacks. Because race is a central identity dimension for Blacks (Sellers, Smith, Shelton, Rowley, & Chavous, 1998) and Blacks discuss race-related topics more often and in more depth than do Whites (Applebaum, 2006, New York Times, 2000, Tatum, 1997), Blacks may be “experts” in race-related discussions, at least relative to Whites. Similar to the effects of expert status in any domain (e.g., Roth et al., 1996, Steptoe and Fidler, 1987), Blacks may feel more confident and, thus, less anxious during interracial interactions in which a race-related topic is being discussed.
The present study revisits the claim that interracial contact is stressful. Although this appears to be a settled question, it remains unclear whether interracial interactions are stressful for Whites relative to Blacks and whether the conditions that make interracial interactions more stressful for Whites (i.e., discussing race) are the very conditions that make them less stressful for Blacks.
- 1.
Interracial contact will be more stressful than same-race contact for White participants.
- 2.
Interracial contact will be more stressful for White than Black participants.
- 3.
Whereas race-related discussions will be more stressful than race-neutral discussions for White participants (H3a), race-related discussions will be less stressful than race-neutral discussions for Black participants (H3b).
Section snippets
Participants
Seventy-two undergraduate students participated in this study for monetary compensation. Twenty of these White students interacted with 20 White students, comprising 20 same-race dyads. Another 16 White students interacted with 16 Black students, comprising 16 interracial dyads.
Procedure
Participants were escorted to a laboratory room where a Black or White interaction partner, who was also a naïve participant in the study, joined them. Participants and partners were given three campus-related topics to
Overall model
To test our predictions, we employed a data analytic approach at the dyadic level similar to that of Vorauer and Kumhyr (2001). Furthermore, we controlled for participant sex given the extant literature suggesting that men and women respond differently to interpersonal interactions (Dovidio, Brown, Heltman, Ellyson, & Keating, 1988; Hall & Friedman, 1999).
We first subjected behavioral anxiety composites to a 2 (Dyad Type: interracial vs. same-race) × 2 (person role: White participant vs. partner) ×
Discussion
Consistent with previous research, we found that White participants behaved more anxiously during interracial than same-race interactions. Nevertheless, the present research suggests that interracial interactions are not uniformly stressful for Whites and Blacks: White participants behaved more anxiously than their Black interaction partners, especially during race-related discussions. Specifically, these White participants behaved quite anxiously during both race-related and race-neutral
References (38)
- et al.
On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
(1997) - et al.
Relations among the implicit association test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
(2001) - et al.
Interracial interactions: A relational approach
- et al.
The nonverbal mediation of self-fulfilling prophecies in interracial interaction
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
(1974) Race ignore-ance, colortalk, and white complicity: White is…White isn’t
Educational Theory
(2006)- et al.
Perceiver threat in social interactions with stigmatized individuals
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
(2001) - et al.
Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model
American Psychologist
(1999) - et al.
Social stigma
- et al.
Power displays between women and men in discussions on gender-linked tasks: A multichannel study
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
(1988) - et al.
An individual difference measure of motivation to control prejudiced reactions
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
(1997)
Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline?
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Status, gender, and nonverbal behavior: A study of structured interactions between employees of a company
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
A comparison of the experiences of dominant and minority group members during an intergroup encounter
Group Processes and Intergroup Relations
Compositions in Black and White: Determinants of interaction in interracial dyads
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
The social psychology of stigma
Annual Review of Psychology
Threatened by the unexpected: Physiological responses during social interactions with expectancy-violating partners
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Sensitivity to status-based rejection: Implications for African American students’ college experience
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Cited by (106)
-
The time is now: addressing implicit bias in obstetrics and gynecology education
2023, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology -
Racial Matching in Qualitative Interviews: Integrating Ontological, Ethical, and Methodological Arguments
2024, Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung -
Understanding the challenges and opportunities of talking to children about race and racism in child-facing institutions
2024, Social Issues and Policy Review -
Intergroup friendship: A reflective spotlight
2023, Personal Relationships -
Experience Matters: Civic Discussion Increases Self-Efficacy and Reduces Forecasted Discomfort in Future Conversations
2023, Social Psychological and Personality Science -
Uniting Through Difference: Rich Cultural-Identity Expression as a Conduit to Inclusion
2023, Organization Science
- ☆
-
Portions of this research were included in a doctoral dissertation submitted to Dartmouth College by Sophie Trawalter, and were presented at the 2007 Annual Meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association.
- ☆☆
-
The authors are grateful to Tracy DeHart for help with data analysis and to Naomi Appel, Katherine Swanson, and Eric Yeh for help with data collection and video coding. The authors also wish to acknowledge the support of NICHD grant #1F32HD055772 to the 1st author, and a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship to the 2nd author.