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Soft Power, Modernization, and Security: US Educational Foreign Policy Toward Authoritarian Spain in the Cold War
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 19 April 2023
Abstract
Cold War strategic priorities led the United States to establish an enduring military alliance with General Francisco Franco's dictatorship in Spain between 1953 and 1975. This article examines the educational diplomacy carried out by the US government during the 1960s and early 1970s to foster Spain's stable modernization through the training of national development elites and the dissemination of US educational ideas. The work surveys US educational, informational, and cultural programs aimed at shaping an educational framework conducive to the expansion and legitimization of a US-oriented socioeconomic liberalization in Spain. On the one hand, this US soft power strategy sought to attract those groups who could play an important role in the capitalist modernization of the educational and economic structures of the Iberian country. On the other hand, it sought to reduce the identification of the United States with Franco's dictatorship and to link the image of the American superpower to the hopes for progress of the Spanish people. All of this was pursued in order to preserve US defensive interests in Spain. The piece also discusses US assistance to the crucial 1970 Spanish General Education Law, which allows us to explore how the US ideology of development and education was received by Spanish educational audiences. Thus, by delving deeper into the intersection between cultural diplomacy, international development, and the history of education, we aim to contribute to the integration of education into the histories of modernization and to deepen our understanding of US educational foreign policy in the Cold War.
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Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the History of Education Society
References
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12 For a conceptual definition of the Third World, see Robert McMahon, ed., introduction to The Cold War in the Third World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 1-10.
13 “Justification for the Present Educational and Cultural Exchange Program in Spain,” Oct. 23, 1965, box 2, Record Group 59 (RG59), Records of the Department of State (DS), Bureau of European Affairs (BEA), Country Director for Spain and Portugal, 1956-1966, NARA; “Spain: A Preoccupation Profile,” Nov. 11, 1959, box 3, RG306, USIA, Office of Research (OR), Classified Research Reports, NARA.
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15 Beginning in the late 1950s, when General Franco was approaching seventy years of age, US diplomacy took an interest in and to made plans for the succession of the Spanish autocrat. See Lorenzo Delgado, “‘After Franco, What?’ La diplomacia pública de Estados Unidos y la preparación del post-franquismo,” in Claves internacionales en la transición española, ed. Óscar J. Martín García and Manuel Ortiz Heras (Madrid: Los Libros de La Catarata, 2010), 104-6.
16 Joseph Hodge, “Writing the History of Development (Part 2: Longer, Deeper, Wider),” Humanity 7, no. 1 (March 2016), 137-38.
17 In addition to the other works referred to throughout this paper, see Lorenzo Delgado, “International Organizations and Educational Change in Spain in the 1960s,” Encounters in Theory and History of Education 21 (2020), 70-91; Cecilia Milito and Tamar Groves, “¿Modernización o democratización? La construcción de un nuevo sistema educativo entre el tardofranquismo y la democracia,” Bordón 65, no. 4 (2013), 135-46; and Gabriela Ossenbach and Alberto Martínez, “Itineraries of the Discourses on Development and Education in Spain and Latin America (circa 1950-1970),” Paedagogica Historica 47, no. 5 (2011), 679-700.
18 “Comments on ‘Authoritarian Regimes’ Receiving U.S. Assistance (Military or Economic),” May 2, 1960, box 5, RG59, DS, BEA, Country Director for Spain and Portugal, 1956-66, NARA. There is an extensive bibliography on the military and political relations between the US and Franco's dictatorship during the 1940s and 1950s. See among others, Wayne Bowen, Truman, Franco's Spain, and the Cold War (Columbus: University of Missouri Press, 2017); Xabier Hualde Amunarriz, El cerco aliado. Estados Unidos, Gran Bretaña y Francia frente a la dictadura franquista (1945-1953) (Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco, 2016); Fernando Termis, Renunciando a todo: El régimen franquista y los Estados Unidos desde 1945 hasta 1963 (Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 2005); Ángel Viñas, En las garras del águila: Los pactos con Estados Unidos, de Francisco Franco a Felipe González (1945-1995) (Barcelona: Editorial Crítica, 2003); and Boris Liedtke, Embracing a Dictatorship: U.S. Relations with Spain, 1945-1953 (London: St. Martin's Press/Macmillan, 1996).
19 “Telegram from the Embassy in Spain to the Department of State,” Sept. 28, 1960, quoted in Glenn LaFantasie, ed. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958-1960, Western Europe (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1993), 778-88; “Addendum to the CU Contribution for a Country Guidelines Paper on Spain,” 1963, box 31, RG59, DS, BECA, Policy Review and Coordination Staff, Country Files, 1955-66, NARA.
20 This process is studied in Elena Cavalieri, España y el FMI: La integración de la economía española en el sistema monetario internacional, 1943-1959 (Madrid: Banco de España, 2014); Lorenzo Delgado, “El ingreso de España en la Organización Europea de Cooperación Económica,” Arbor 170, no. 669 (2001), 147-79; and Joaquín Muns and Montserrat Millet, España y el Banco Mundial. Relaciones 1958-1994 (Madrid: Mundi, 1994).
21 The rapid economic, social, and cultural changes in Spain during the 1960s and 1970s are addressed in Nigel Townson, ed., Spain Transformed: The Late Franco Dictatorship, 1959-1975 (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007); and Glicerio Sánchez, ed., Eppure si muove: La percepción de los cambios en España (1959-1976) (Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 2008).
22 Elena Hernández-Sandoica, Miguel Ruiz-Carnicer, and Marc Baldó, Estudiantes contra Franco (1939-1975): Oposición política y movilización juvenil (Madrid: La Esfera de los Libros, 2007), 85-96.
23 “Inspection Report USIS Spain,” May 29, 1966, box 8, RG306, USIA, Inspection Reports and Related Records, 1954-1962, NARA.
24 “Appraisal of an education Project in Spain,” May 22, 1970, Education Projects Department, World Bank Archives (WBA).
25 “USIS Country Plan for Spain, FY 1962,” March 7, 1962, box 4, RG306, USIA, OR, Foreign Service Dispatches, 1954-1965, NARA.
26 On the USIA, see Nicholas Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945-1989 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Kenneth Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower's Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2006); and Wilson P. Dizard, Inventing Public Diplomacy: The Story of the US Information Agency (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004).
27 This international educational cooperation came mainly from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and the World Bank.
28 On multilateral institutions and the “economics of education,” see Julia Resnik, “International Organizations, the ‘Education-Economic Growth’ Black Box, and the Development of World Education Culture,” Comparative Education Review 50, no. 2 (May 2006), 173-95; Mattia Granata, “The OECD and Technical Education in Post-war Mediterranean Europe,” Labor History 63, no. 1 (2022), 1-15; Maren Elfert, “The OECD, American Power and the Rise of the ‘Economics of Education’ in the 1960s,” in The OECD's Historical Rise in Education: The Formation of a Global Governing Complex, ed. Christian Ydesen (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 39-63; and Bürgi, “Engineering the Free World,” 285-311.
29 Charles Dorn and Kristen Ghodsee, “The Cold War Politicization of Literacy: Communism, UNESCO, and the World Bank,” Diplomatic History 36, no. 2 (April 2012), 373-98. Some of the pioneering works of this educational vision included Theodore Schultz, “Investment in Human Capital,” American Economic Review 51, no. 5 (Dec. 1961), 1-17; and Gary Becker, Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964).
30 Carol Lancaster, Foreign Aid: Diplomacy, Development, Domestic Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 65-66; Mark Berger, “Decolonisation, Modernisation and Nation-Building: Political Development Theory and the Appeal of Communism in Southeast Asia, 1945-1975,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 34, no. 3 (Oct. 2003), 422.
31 On the ideas of modernization doctrine, see Janeen Klinger, “A Sympathetic Appraisal of Cold War Modernization Theory,” International History Review 39, no. 4 (2017), 691-712.
32 “USIA and National Development,” June 7, 1967, box 25, Papers of Leonard Marks, JFKL; “The United States Information Agency during the Administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson, 1963-1969,” 1968, box 1, Administrative Histories, USIA, 1963-1969, LBJL.
33 Guy Fitch, “Educación y Economía,” Noticias de Actualidad, no. 20 (Dec. 1961), 20.
34 “Dos histos de amistad,” Noticias de Actualidad, no. 13 (Sept. 1960), 6-7; “Institutos laborales,” Noticias de Actualidad, no. 19 (Dec. 1961), 8-9.
35 Arthur M. Schlesinger, “El uno contra los muchos,” Atlántico, no. 23 (Oct. 1963), 5-9.
36 “Walt Rostow: desarrollo del Tercer Mundo,” Atlántico, no. 27 (Feb. 1964), 13-14.
37 “Visit to Madrid by the Counselor of the Department Walt W. Rostow,” Oct. 21, 1964, box 204, National Security File, Country File, Spain, LBJL.
38 Hemant Shah, The Production of Modernization: Daniel Lerner, Mass Media, and the Passing of Traditional Society (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011), 7-11; Andrew Warne, “Psychoanalyzing Iran: Kennedy's Iran Task Force and the Modernization of Orientalism, 1961-3,” International History Review 35, no. 2 (April 2013), 414.
39 “Addendum to the CU Contribution for a Country Guidelines Paper on Spain,” 1963, box 31, RG59, DS, Policy Review and Coordination Staff, NARA; “USIS Country Plan for Spain, FY 1962,” March 7, 1962, box 4, RG306, USIA, OR, Foreign Service Dispatches, 1954-1965, NARA.
40 Corinna Unger, “The United States, Decolonization, and the Education of Third World Elites,” in Elites and Decolonization in the Twentieth Century, ed. Jost Dülffer and Marc Frey (Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 241-45.
41 “USIA and National Development,” June 8, 1967, box 25, Papers of Leonard Marks, JFKL.
42 “USIS Country Plan for Spain, FY 1962,” March 7, 1962, box 4, RG306, USIA, OR, Foreign Service Dispatches, 1954-1965, NARA.
43 “Lecture and Related Program Activities of USIS Madrid,” June 30, 1961, box 68, RG306, USIA, ICS, Cultural Operations Divisions, Country Files, 1949-1945, NARA; “Annual Report on Educational Exchange for FY 1961,” July 6, 1961, box 30, RG306, USIA, Policy Review and Coordination Staff, Country Files, 1955-66, NARA.
44 Lorenzo Delgado, “¿El ‘amigo americano’? España y Estados Unidos durante el franquismo,” Studia Histórica 21, no. 1 (2003), 264-65; Adoración Álvaro, “Guerra Fría y formación del capital humano durante el franquismo. Un balance sobre el programa estadounidense de ayuda técnica,” Historia del Presente 17, no. 1 (2011), 13-20; Pueblo amigos (Madrid: USIS-Spain, n.d.).
45 On the Fulbright Program in Spain, see, among others, Lorenzo Delgado, Westerly Wind: The Fulbright Program in Spain (Madrid: Comisión Fulbright España, 2009); and Francisco J. Rodríguez Jiménez, “Haciendo amigos: intercambios educativos hispano-estadounidenses en clave política, 1959-1968,” Studia Histórica, Historia Contemporánea 25, no. 1 (2007), 339-62.
46 “Solicitud preliminar de beca de estudios para los Estados Unidos,” Oct. 9, 1967, Expedientes de becarios y no becarios de la comisión Fulbright, AGA 51/10582, Records of the Fulbright Spain Commission (RFSC).
47 “Encuesta entre antiguos becarios españoles de 1973,” AGA 51/10574, RFSC.
48 “English Language Teaching as an Important Tool of Foreign Policy,” Sept. 23, 1965, box 121, RG306, USIA, Subject Folders, 1955-1971, NARA. The relationship between English language teaching and Cold War modernization has been little studied. Some exceptions are Diana Lemberg, “‘The Universal Language of the Future’: Decolonization, Development, and the American Embrace of Global English, 1945-1965,” Modern Intellectual History 15, no. 2 (Aug. 2018), 561-65; and Chee Lee, “The Way to Modernization: Language Ideologies and the Peace Corps English Education in Korea,” Education and Society 35, no. 1 (2017), 63-80.
49 “English Language Teaching, Spain,” 1966, box 2, RG306, USIA, Office of the Assistant director for Europe, Policy Files, 1963-1968, NARA. See also Óscar J. Martín García and Francisco J. Rodríguez Jiménez, “The Engaging Power of English-Language Promotion in Franco's Spain,” Contemporary European History 24, no. 3 (Aug. 2015), 427.
50 “Solicitud preliminar de beca de estudios para los Estados Unidos, José Luis Eslava-Oroz,” Oct. 10, 1967, Expedientes de becarios y no becarios de la comisión Fulbright, AGA 51/10580, RFSC; “Encuesta de la Comisión de Intercambio Cultural entre España y los Estados Unidos de América a Antonio Masó Mezquita,” Encuesta entre antiguos becarios españoles de marzo de 1972, AGA 54/10565, RFSC.
51 “USG English Language Teaching Program,” Jan. 2, 1963, box 80, RG306, USIA, ICS, Cultural Operations Divisions, Country Files, 1949-1945, NARA; “Monthly Highlights - USIS Spain,” May 31, 1965, box 95, RG306, USIA, ICS, Cultural Operations Divisions, Country Files, 1949-1945, NARA.
52 “Recommendations Regarding the CU Program in Spain,” Jan. 14, 1965, box 402, Central Foreign Policy, 1964-1966, Culture and Information, NARA.
53 For more details on these seminars, see Fabiola de Santisteban-Fernández, “El desembarco de la Fundación Ford en España,” Ayer 75, no. 3 (2009), 159-91.
54 This concept is coined in Giles Scott-Smith, Networks of Empire: The U.S. State Department's Foreign Leader Program in the Netherlands, France, and Britain, 1950-70 (Brussels: Peter Lang, 2008), 21-28. See also Charles Maier, Among Empires: American Ascendancy and Its Predecessors (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006).
55 “USIS Country Plan for Spain - FY 1961,” June 25, 1960, box 4, RG306, USIA, OR, 1954-65, NARA.
56 “Barcelona BNC Report for April 1966,” n.d., box 5, RG306, USIA, Office of the Assistant Director for Europe, Policy Files, 1963-68, NARA; “Barcelona Binational Center Activities Report,” Sept. 18, 1964, box 95, RG306, USIA, ICS, Cultural Operations Divisions, European Libraries and Centers Branch, Country Files, 1949-1945, NARA.
57 A US official report observed in 1960 that “as Spain moves out of its isolation, it is essential that its youth and leaders of the next five to ten years look to the United States as the source of guidance.” See “Annual Report on Educational Exchange Activities in Spain for FY 1960,” July 29, 1960, box 30, RG59, Policy Review and Coordination Staff, Country Files, 1955-66, NARA.
58 “Some General Observations on United States Policy towards Spain,” June 25, 1965, box 2, RG59, BEA, Country Director for Spain and Portugal, 1956-1966, NARA.
59 “Lecture and Related Program Activities of USIS Madrid,” June 30, 1961, box 68, RG306, USIA, ICS, Cultural Operations Divisions, European Libraries and Centers Branch, Country Files, 1949-1945, NARA.
60 “America Week in Zaragoza,” Dec. 27, 1962, box 80, RG306, USIA, ICS, Cultural Operations Divisions, Country Files, 1949-1945, NARA; “Monthly Report to USIS,” Feb. 24, 1966, box 8, RG59, DS, BEA, Country Director for Spain and Portugal, 1956-1966, NARA; “Appraisal of Program Accomplishments: Grantee Evidence of Effectiveness Report,” n.d., file 38, box 240, Group IX, BECA, HC, UAL.
61 “Country Program Plans for FY 1966 and ’67,” May 24, 1965, box 31, RG59, DS, Policy Review and Coordination Staff, Country Files, 1955-66, NARA.
62 “The Educational and Cultural Exchange Program with Spain,” Oct. 27, 1969, box 240, Group IX, BECA, HC, UAL; “Educational and Cultural Exchange: Annual Report for Spain for the Fiscal Year, July 1, 1969-June 30, 1970,” Sept. 23, 1970, box 32, Group XVI, BECA, HC, UAL.
63 “Annual Report on Educational Exchange for FY 1961,” July 6, 1961, box 30, RG306, USIA, Policy Review and Coordination Staff, Country Files, 1955-66, NARA.
64 See Tsvetkova, “International Education during the Cold War,” 206-8.
65 “Addendum to the CU Contribution for a Country Guidelines Paper on Spain,” 1963, box 31, RG306, USIA, Policy Review and Coordination Staff, Country Files, 1955-66, NARA
66 “Encuesta Comisión de Intercambio Cultural entre España y los Estados Unidos de América, Encuesta entre antiguos becarios españoles de marzo de 1972,” AGA 54/10565, RFSC.
67 “Monthly Report to USIS,” Feb. 24, 1966, box 8, RG59, DS, BEA, Country Director for Spain and Portugal, 1956-1966, NARA.
68 Conversations between Dr. Julián Marías, Spanish Liberal Intellectual and Ambassador Stevenson, American Embassy, Madrid, Dec. 20, 1963, box 4046, RG59, Central Foreign Policy, 1963, NARA.
69 Enseñanza en los Estados Unidos (Madrid: Servicio de Información de los Estados Unidos, 1968), 2.
70 Francis Rogers, “Educación superior en los Estados Unidos,” Noticias de Actualidad 15, no. 1 (Jan. 1963), 12-16.
71 La vida universitaria en Estados Unidos (Madrid: Servicio de Información de los Estados Unidos, 1967), 4.
72 “Alas pedagógicas,” Atlántico, Nov. 1963, 24, 22-23.
73 Héctor Lindo-Fuentes, “Educational Television in El Salvador and Modernization Theory,” Journal of Latin American Studies 41, no. 4 (2009), 757-92; Héctor Lindo-Fuentes, “How a Cold War Education Project Backfired: Modernization Theory, the Alliance for Progress and the 1968 Education Reform in El Salvador,” in Teaching Modernization, 172-93. On educational television in Spain, see also Mariano González, “‘Estar a la altura de nuestro tiempo’: la televisión educativa, la UNESCO y la modernización de la enseñanza en el franquismo,” Hispania 80, no. 265 (2020), 597-627.
74 “Estudios de madrugada,” Noticias de Actualidad, no. 3 (Feb. 1960), 17.
75 “USIS Country Plan for Spain - FY 1961,” June 25, 1960, box 4, RG306, USIA, Office of Research, 1954-65, NARA.
76 “Notes on Harriman Conversation with Spanish Liberals,” Dec. 21, 1966, box 9, RG59, DS, BEA, Country Director for Spain and Portugal, 1956-1966, NARA.
77 Kostis Kornetis, “‘Cuban Europe’? Greek and Iberian tiersmondisme in the ‘Long 1960s,’” Journal of Contemporary History 50, no. 3 (July 2015), 486-515.
78 “US Policy Assessment,” May 9, 1968, box 2493, RG59, DS, Central Policy Files (CPF), Political and Defense, 1967-1969, NARA; “Damages to Institute of North American Studies,” June 7, 1967, and “North American Study Center Bombed in Valencia,” Feb. 18, 1969, box 2491, RG59, DS, CPF, Political and Defense, 1967-1969, NARA.
79 Mariano González-Delgado and Tamar Groves, “Educational Transfer and Local Actors: International Intervention in Spain during the Late Franco Period,” in Teaching Modernization, 119; see also Oliver Boyd-Barrett and Pamela O'Malley, eds., Education Reform in Democratic Spain: International Developments in School Reform (New York: Routledge, 1995).
80 Juan M. Fernández-Soria and Diego Sevilla, “La Ley General de Educación de 1970, ¿una ley para la modernización de España?,” Historia y Memoria de la Educación 14 (2021), 33-35.
81 Lorenzo Delgado, “Modernizadores y tecnócratas. Estados Unidos ante la política educativa y científica de la España del desarrollo,” Historia y Política 34 (2015), 136.
82 Óscar J. Martín García, “Awkward Alliances: Modernisation Theory and United States Foreign Policy towards Franco's Spain in the 1960s,” Diplomacy & Statecraft 32, no. 4 (2021), 731; Sara Morgenstern de Finkel, “The Scenario of the Spanish Educational Reform,” in Understanding Educational Reform in Global Context: Economy, Ideology, and the State, ed. Mark Ginsburg (New York: Garland Publishing, 1991), 158-59.
83 Lorenzo Delgado and Óscar J. Martín García, “El apoyo internacional a la reforma educativa en España,” Historia y Memoria de la Educación 14 (June 2021), 177-208; Mariano González and Tamar Groves, “La UNESCO y la Ley General de Educación: La influencia de los organismos internacionales en torno a la modernización educativa en el franquismo,” Historia y Memoria de la Educación, 14 (June 2021), 209-52.
84 Lorenzo Delgado and Patricia de la Hoz, “US Assistance to Educational Reform in Spain: Soft Power in Exchange for Military Bases,” in Teaching Modernization, 49.
85 “Informe del Programa de Cooperación Cultural entre España y los Estados Unidos de América,” Nov. 4, 1976, and “Becas para españoles del Programa NMA,” box 92/7, RFSC.
86 “Appraisal of an Education Project in Spain,” May 22, 1970, Education Projects Department, WBA.
87 Tamar Groves, “Everyday Struggles against Franco's Authoritarian Legacy: Pedagogical Social Movements and Democracy in Spain,” Journal of Social History 46, no. 2 (Winter 2012), 305-34; Marta Jiménez-Jaén, La Ley General de Educación y el movimiento de enseñantes (1970-1976) (La Laguna, Spain: Universidad de La Laguna, 2000).
88 “Spanish Student Unrest and University Situation,” April 19, 1972, box 397, RG59, DS, Subject Numerical Files (SNF), 1970-73, Culture and Information, NARA.
89 “Spain: A Troubled Academic Year Ahead?,” Oct. 27, 1972, box 397, RG59, DS, SNF, 1970-73, Culture and Information, NARA.
90 Isabel Grana Gil, “The General Education Act and the Church: Agreements and Disagreements,” Historia y Memoria de la Educación 14 (2021), 143-75; Manuel de Puelles Benítez, Educación e ideología en la España Contemporánea (Madrid: Tecnos, 2010).
91 “USIS Country Assessment Report for Spain 1960,” Feb. 15, 1961, box 4, RG306, USIA, OR, Foreign Services Dispatches, 1954-65, NARA. See also Óscar J. Martín García, “‘The Most Developed of the Underdeveloped Nations’: US Foreign Policy and Student Unrest in 1960s Spain,” International History Review 41, no. 3 (2019), 539-58.
92 “From US Consulate in Valencia to US Ambassador Angier Biddle Duke,” May 27, 1965, box 2, RG59, DS, BEA, Country Director for Spain and Portugal, 1956-1966, NARA; “Damages to Institute of North American Studies,” June 7, 1967, and “North American Study Center Bombed in Valencia,” Feb. 18, 1969, box 2491, RG59, DS, CFP, Political and Defense, 1967-1969, NARA.