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Galileo Timeline

This timeline provides a detailed chronology of Galileo's life. Within the text, there are links to longer texts and related resources. Years are linked to the European Timeline, which provides a broad overview of concurrent events in Europe.

Note: Dates before October 1582 are Julian; all others are on the Gregorian Calendar.

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1562	July 5	Vincenzo Galilei of Florence marries Giulia degli Ammannati of Pescia. They live in Pisa.
1564	February 15	Galileo, their first child, is born.
	February 19	Galileo is baptized in the baptistry of the cathedral of Pisa.
1573	May 8	Virginia Galilei is born.
1574		Vincenzo Galilei and his family move to Florence.
1575	December 18	Michelangelo Galilei is born.
1578	October 7	Livia Galilei is born.
1579		Galileo is at the monastery of Santa Maria di Vallombrosa, where he considers joining the order.
	July	Galileo returns to his family in Florence.
1581	September 5	Galileo matriculates as a students of the "Arts" at the University of Pisa. His father's wish is that he study medicine.
1583		According to Vincenzo Viviani, Galileo's first biographer, during his student days at Pisa Galileo formulated the isochronism of the pendulum while watching the oscillations of a lamp in the cathedral of Pisa.
		Galileo first studies Euclid's Elements--not at the university, but in Florence under the court mathematician Ostilio Ricci.
1585		He completes the fourth year of his studies and returns to Florence without a degree.
1586		Galileo begins to work on certain problems in physics, following Archimedes rather than Aristotle. He invents a hydrostatic balance(bilancetta).
1585-89		Gives private lessons in mathematics in Florence and Siena.
1587		First voyage to Rome; meets Christoph Clavius.
		Applies for a lectureship of mathematics at the University of Siena.
		Finds certain propositions about centers of gravity which go beyond the work of Archimedes.
1588 (?)		Vincenzo Galilei performs experiments on the relationship between the tension and pitch of strings. His son, Galileo, may have helped him with these and surely was aware of them.
		Galileo gives two public lectures at the Accademia Fiorentina (Florentine Academy) about the shape, location, and dimensions of hell as described in Dante's Inferno.
		Tries to obtain teaching positions at the universities of Pisa, Siena, Padua, and Bologna, and a lectureship in Florence. He obtains a lectureship of mathematics at the university of Pisa.
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1589-92		Teaches mathematical subjects at the University of Pisa (salary 160 scudi per year). Some tracts--lecture notes--written during this period have survived. In On Motion Galileo uses the Archimedian approach to motion: the speed of falling bodies is proportional to their density, not their weight as Aristotle had maintained.
		According to Vincenzo Viviani Galileo demonstrated his conclusions by dropping weights from the leaning tower of Pisa. This report has been doubted by historians.
1591		Vincenzo Galilei dies, leaving Galileo, his oldest son, as the head of the family. He was responsible to meet the terms of a large endowment bestowed by his father on Virginia, his sister, who had just been married to Luca Landucci.
1592		Galileo obtains the chair of mathematics at the university of Padua in the Venetian Republic (salary 160 ducats per year), where he remains until 1610. His initial contract is for four years, renewable for two further years. His inaugural lecture is on 7 December, and his first regular lecture on 13 December. His duties are to lecture on geometry and astronomy. He gives private lessons on Euclid, arithmetic, fortification, surveying, cosmography, optics, and the use of the sector.
1593		Puts together treatises on fortifications and mechanics for his private students.
		Invents a machine for raising water, a pump driven by horses. In 1594 he receives a patent on this design from the Venetian Senate.
1595		Develops his explanation of the tides which invokes the annual and diurnal motion of the Earth. It appears that his preference for the Copernican theory dates from this year.
1597		Invents a "geometric and military compass," a sector ("a mathematical instrument consisting of two rulers connected at one end by a joint and marked with several scales"). It was used to solve practical mathematical problems. He taught its use to his private students and wrote an instruction manual, later published.
		For the use of his students, he prepares a Treatise on the Sphere, or Cosmographia.
1599		Enters a relationship with Marina Gamba.
		Employs a craftsman, Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni, to make scientific instruments and produce the sector of Galileo's invention, which are sold to wealthy students along with his treatise explaining its use.
		He obtains a new, six-year contract, retroactive to December 1598, with a salary of 320 ducats.
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1600		Giordano Bruno is burned at the stake in Rome.
	August 13	Marina Gamba gives birth to a daughter who is baptized Virginia, who later takes the name Maria Celeste.
1601	January	Marriage of Galileo's sister, Livia, to Taddeo Galetti. Galileo has promised a dowry of 1800 ducats--800 right away and 200 per year for five years. His brother Michelangelo is to pay half. Galileo borrows 600 ducats.
	August 18	Marina Gamba gives birth to a second daughter who is baptized Livia, who later takes the name Arcangela.
1602		Galileo experiments with the pendulum in connection with natural accelerated motion. His friend, the physician Santorio Santorio uses the pendulum principle to invent a pulsilogium, a hand-held pendulum with which to take the pulse.
1603		He begins employing an amanuensis to copy manuscript treatises which he sells to his private students.
1604		Visits Mantua in an effort to obtain patronage from the Duke of Mantua. The effort does not bear fruit.
		Experiments for the first time with uniformly accelerated motion on a gently sloping inclined plane, judging a ball's positions after equal time intervals. These experiments lead to the law of falling bodies, although it takes Galileo three more years to arrive at a mathematical demonstration of this law.
	September	His machine to lift water is tried in the garden of the Contarini house in Padua.
	October 10	The new star (supernova) is first observed in Padua.
	December 24	Galileo observes the new star for the first time.
1605	January	Delivers three lectures on the new star at the university of Padua. His argument is that parallax measurements show that the new star is beyond the Moon. It is therefore in the heavens and thus change must be admitted in the heavens.
	March	Publishes Dialogue of Cecco di Ronchitti da Bruzene with regard to the New Star, in Padua. A second edition was published in Verona that same summer.
	July	The operations of the geometric and military compass is printed. It is dedicated to Cosimo II de' Medici.
1606	Summer	Galileo publishes Considerations of Alimberto Mauri on Some Places in the Discourse of Lodovico Delle Colombe about the Star which appeared in 1604.
1606/7		Invents the thermoscope, a primative thermometer.
		Writes a treatise on hydrostatics.
1607	April	Balthasar Capra publishes The use and construction of the proportional compass in Padua. This is a plagiarism of Galileo's book on the sector. Galileo institues a legal process that ended with the expulsion of Capra from the university and the confiscation of all unsold copies of the book. A German mathematician named Simon Marius, Capra's tutor until 1605, was implicated in the affair.
	Summer	Galileo first investigates hydrostatics and the strength of materials.
1607/8		Further studies on motion. Discovery of the parabolic path of projectiles.
1608		Galileo arms a lodestone belonging to his friend, Sagredo and arranges for it to be bought by Grand Duke Ferdinand I de' Medici. The 56-ounce armed lodestone could lift 132 ounces of iron.
	Summer	Galileo is in Florence at the insistence of the Grand Duchess Christina. Marriage of Cosimo de' Medici. Galileo proposes the lodestone as a device, or symbol marking Cosimo's character and power.
	October	In The Hague, Hans Lipperhey requests a patent on a spyglass.
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1608/9		Galileo constructs a hydrostatic balance.
		Further studies of accelerated motion.
1609		Cosimo II de' Medici becomes Grand Duke of Tuscany, following his father's death.
		Johannes Kepler publishes his New Astronomy, which contains his first two laws of planetary motion.
	May	Galileo hears about the invention of devices for seeing faraway things as though nearby (telescope) in the Netherlands.
	June	Galileo duplicates the invention and makes a three-powered telescope.
	August	Thomas Harriot, observing near London, makes a drawing of the Moon as seen through a 6- powered telescope.
		Through the connections of his friend Paolo Sarpi, Galileo presents an eight-powered telescope to the Venetian Senate. He is rewarded by a doubling of his salary and life- tenure at the University of Padua. He is disappointed by the fine print.
	Fall	Continues his improvement of the telescope and begins to make celestial observations with the instrument.
	December	Makes a series of observations of the Moon, from 30 November to 19 December.
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1610	January	On 7 January Galileo observes three bright little stars near Jupiter; by 15 January he has figured out that there are four satellites of Jupiter.
	February	While continuing his other observations, Galileo maps some star formations.
	March	Sidereus Nuncius, dedicated to Cosimo II, Grand Duke of Tuscany, comes off the press in Venice. The satellites of Jupiter are here called the Medicean Stars, in honor of the house of his prospective patron.
	April	Johannes Kepler sends a letter in support of Galileo's discoveries. The letter is published in Prauge as Conversation with the Sidereal Messenger. It is reprinted in Florence a few months later.
		Galileo travels to Pisa where he shows the satellites of Jupiter to Grand Duke Cosimo II de' Medici.
	June	Martin Horky publishes A very short excursion against the Sidereal Messenger.
	July	Following negotiations, Galileo is appointed "Chief Mathematician of the University of Pisa and Philosopher and Mathematician to the Grand Duke" of Tuscany. The appointment is for life.
		Galileo first observes the strange appearances of Saturn.
	September	Galileo moves from Padua to Florence.
		Kepler verifies the existence of the satellites of Jupiter (and publishes a tract on them the next year).
	November	John Wedderburn, a student of Galileo, publishes, in Padua, a reply to Martin Horky's tract.
		The satellites of Jupiter are observed in England by Thomas Harriot, in Provence by Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc and Joseph Gaultier de la Valette, and in Rome by Christopher Clavius and the other Jesuit mathematicians at the Collegio Romano.
	December	Galileo verifies that Venus goes through phases like the Moon. The phases of Venus falsify the Ptolemaic System and prove that Venus goes around the Sun, in conformance with the Copernican System.
		Thomas Harriot makes his first record of an observation of sunspots.
1610/11		Lodovico delle Colombe publishes Against the Earth's Motion against Galileo's celestial discoveries.
1611		Francesco Sizzi publishes Dianoia Astronomica, Optica, Physica against Galileo's celestial discoveries.
	March	Galileo arrives in Rome on 29 March.
		Johannes Fabricius and his father, the astronomer David Fabricius, begin their observations of sunspots in Osteel in northwestern Germany.
	March or April	Christoph Scheiner, S.J. and his student Johann Baptist Cysat, S.J., see spots on the Sun but don't pursue the observation.
	April	Upon the request of Cardinal Bellarmine, the Jesuit mathematicians of the Collegio Romano certify Galileo's celestial discoveries, although they do not necessarily agree with Galileo's interpretation of these discoveries.
		Galileo is inducted into the Lincean Academy, at a banquet given by the academy's founder and patron, Federico Cesi. At this occasion the name telescope is first used.
	May	The Inquisition decides to check to see if Galileo is mentioned in the proceedings against the Aristotelian philosopher Cesare Cremonini, Galileo's colleague and friendly opponent at the University of Padua.
		The mathematicians at the Collegio Romano honor Galileo at a banquet. Odo van Maelcote delivers a lecture on Galileo's discoveries.
		While in Rome, Galileo shows sunspots to some of his friends.
	June	In Germany, Johannes Fabricius publishes the first book on sunspots, Narration on spots observed on the Sun and their apparent rotation with the Sun (Wittenberg, 1611).
	August	Back in Florence, Galileo is drawn into a dispute concerning the behavior of bodies in water, taking the Archimedean position and arguing against the position of Aristotle.
	September	Kepler's Dioptrice published in Augsburg.
	October	At a debate during a state dinner for two visiting cardinals, Galileo repeats the Archimedean arguments abouts bodies in water. He is supported by Cardinal Maffeo Barberini (later Pope Urban VIII), who became one of Galileo's patrons at this time.
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1612	January	A tract on sunspots, entitled Three letters on solar spots, written by Christoph Scheiner, is published in Augsburg under the pseudonym "Apelles hiding behind the painting."
	May	Galileo's first letter on sunspots.
	August	Galileo's second letter on sunspots.
	September	Christoph Scheiner's second sunspot tract, A more accurate discussion of sunspots and the stars which move around Jupiter, again under the pseudonym of Apelles.
	Fall	The Lincean Academy decides to publish Galileo's letters on sunspots to Marc Welser.
	December	Galileo's third letter on sunspots.
1613	March	History and Demonstrations about Sunspots and their Properties, containing the three letters by Galileo is published by the Lincean Academy in Rome. In about half the copies the two tracts by Scheiner are reprinted.
	December	Benedetto Castelli, professor of Mathematics as the University of Pisa, and a student of Galileo, defends the Copernican theory to the Grand Duchess Dowager Christina of Lorraine. Upon hearing about this event, Galileo composes a long letter to Castelli on his views about the relationship between science and Scriptures.
1614	December	Tommaso Caccini, a Dominican friar preaches a sermon in Florence against Galileo and mathematicians who subscribe to the Copernican view which, Caccini avers, is heretical.
1615	January	Caccini's superior apologizes to Galileo in writing.
	February	A Dominican friar Niccolo Lorini, who had earlier criticized Galileo's view in private conversations, files a written complaint with the Inquisition against Galileo's Copernican views. He encloses a copy of Galileo's letter to Castelli.
	March	The Carmelite Friar Paolo Antonio Foscarini published Letter on the Pythagorean and Copernican Opinion of the Earth's Motion and Sun's Rest and on the New Pythagorean World System, in which are harmonized and reconciled those passages of the Holy Scripture and those theological propositions which could ever be adduced against this opinion (Naples, 1615). In this book, Foscarini argues that the Copernican theory is compatible with Scripture.
		Caccini gives a deposition to the Roman Inquisition.
		Galileo writes a long letter defending his views to Monsignor Piero Dini, a well connected official in the Vatican.
	April	Cardinal Bellarmine writes to Foscarini, cautioning him to treat the Copernican theory as a hypothesis only and includes Galileo in his comments.
	Summer	Galileo writes his "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina," which is not printed but circulates widely. (A Latin version is published in the Netherlands in 1636.) This is an enlarged version of his letter to Castelli of Dec. 1613.
	December	Galileo goes to Rome to defend his Copernican ideas.
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1616	January	Writes up his theory about the tides which, he argues, proves that the earth moves. He addresses this treatise to Cardinal Alessandro Orsini.
	February	A committee of consultants declares to the Inquisition that the proposition that the Sun is the center of the universe is absurd in philosophy and formally heretical and that the proposition that the Earth has an annual motion is absurd in philosophy and at least erroneous in theology.
		On orders of the Pope Paul V, Cardinal Bellarmine calls Galileo to his residence and administers a warning not to hold or defend the Copernican theory. An unsigned transcript in the Inquisition file, discovered in 1633, states that Galileo is also forbidden to discuss the theory orally or in writing.
	March	The Congregation of the Index suspends Copernicus's On the Revolutions until corrected and bans Foscarini's book entirely, Galileo is not mentioned in the decree.
		Galileo has an audience with Pope Paul V, and is assured by the Pope.
	May	Cardinal Bellarmine writes a letter to Galileo certifying that Galileo had not been on trial or condemned by the Inquisition.
	June	Galileo attacks the problem of determining longitude at sea by means of eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter.
		After an oral dispute between Galileo and Francesco Ingoli, it is agreed that Ingoli will write out his argument and Galileo will then reply in writing. Ingoli's tract, Disputation on the place and stability of the Earth, against the system of Copernicus, in which he uses scriptural arguments against Copernicus, is not printed. Because of the decision by the Inquisition, Galileo does not reply at this time.
1618		In October and November three different comets appear, the third one very bright. Orazio Grassi, a professor professor of mathematics at the Collegio Romano, delivers a public lecture on comets. A manuscript copy of this lecture was sent to Galileo. The lecture itself was published early in 1619 under the title On the Three Comets of the Year MDCXVIII. An Astronomical Disputation Presented Publicly in the Collegio Romano of the Society of Jesus by one of the Fathers of that same Society. At stake is the location of these comets.
1619	January/February	Galileo's views on comets are requested by many, among them Archduke Leopold of Austria. He begins drafting a critique of the lecture published by the Jesuit father at the Collegio Romano.
	June	Mario Guiducci, a pupil of Galileo's, delivers a lecture on the comets in which he argues against the Jesuit interpretation of these bodies. The lecture, written largely by Galileo, is published under the title Discourse on the Comets. By Mario Guiducci. Delivered at the Florentine Academy during his Term as Consul.
	October	Under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsi, Orazio Grassi counters with a tract entitled The Astronomical Balance, on which the Opinions of Galileo Galilei regarding Comets are weighed, as well as those presented in the Florentine Academy by Mario Guiducci and recently published.
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1620	May	The Congregation of the Index issued the corrections that must be made in Copernicus's On the Revolutions before it can be read.
	June	Mario Guiducci publishes a letter in which he replies to Orazio Grassi's Astronomical Balance.
	August	Cardinal Maffeo Barberini sends Galileo a poem entitled Adulatio Perniciosa, composed by him in honor of Galileo.
1621	January	Galileo is elected Consul of the Accademia Fiorentina.
		Pope Paul V dies. He is succeeded by Gregory XV, who dies in July 1623.
	February	Death of Grand Duke Cosimo II de' Medici. He is succeeded by Ferdinand II (11 years old), who will reign under the regency of his grandmother, Christina of Lorraine, and his mother, Marie Madeleine of Austria.
1622	October	Galileo sends the manuscript of The Assayer, his reply to Grassi's Astronomical Balance, to the Lincean Academy in Rome.
1623		Publication of Tommaso Campanella's Defense of Galileo in Frankfurt.
	February	The Roman censors give permission for The Assayer to be printed.
	August	Upon the death of Pope Gregory XV, Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, a friend and patron of Galileo, is elected Pope and takes the name Urban VIII.
	October	The Assayer, now dedicated to Pope Urban VIII, is published in Rome under the auspices of the Lincean Academy.
1624	April	Galileo goes to Rome where he has six audiences with the Pope Urban VIII and also has audience with a number of cardinals. The Pope assured him that he could write about the Copernican theory as long as he treated it as a mathematical hypothesis.
		In Rome, Galileo shows a compound microscope to members of the Lincean Academy. Observations of a bee made with this instrument by Francesco Stelluti were published in 1630. Galileo then presented this instrument to Cardinal Zollern for the Duke of Bavaria.
	June	Galileo returns to Florence.
	September	Galileo writes his "Letter to Ingoli," in which he refutes Ingoli's Disputation of 1616. The letter is not printed but circulates in manuscript.
		Galileo begins revising his treatise on tides (see 1616), which eventually results in his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632).
1624/25		A complaint against Galileo's Assayer is lodged by a person unknown to us. The complaint charges that the atomism espoused in the book cannot be squared with the official church doctrine regarding the Eucharist, in which bread and wine are "transubstantiated" into Christ's flesh and blood. After an investigation by the Inquisition, Galileo is cleared.
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1626		Horatio Grassi publishes his reply to The Assayer, a book entitled Ratio Ponderum Librae ac Simbellae, in Paris.
1627	March	Urban VIII bestows a pension of 60 scudi per year on Vincenzio, the son of Galileo.
1629	November	Galileo once again takes up contact with Spanish authorities about the determination of longitude at sea by means of the satellites of Jupiter.
	December	Galileo becomes a grandfather, when Sestilia Bocchineri, his son Vincenzio's wife since the previous year, gives birth to a boy who is given the name Galileo.
1630		Publication of Christoph Scheiner's Rosa Ursina, the definitive work on sunspots for over a century.
		Death of Johannes Kepler.
	February	Urban VIII bestows a pension of 40 scudi per year on Galileo.
	April	Galileo finishes his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems.
	May/June	Galileo is in Rome to clear his Dialogue with the censors and make arrangements to have it printed by the Lincean Academy. He obtains conditional permission from the Secretary of the Vatican
	Summer	An outbreak of the plague begins to disrupt commerce and travel between cities.
	August	Federico Cesi, the founder and patron of the Lincean Academy, dies. This is the end of his academy.
	Fall	Galileo sends the preface and ending of his Dialogue to the Secretary of the Vatican for corrections. He has now decided to print the book in Florence.
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1631	Spring	Through Grand Duke Ferdinand II and his ambassador in Rome, Galileo negotiates with the Secretary of the Vatican about the printing of the Dialogue. The final result is that the preface and ending would be approved in Rome while the remainder of the book would be checked and approved by the Inquisition in Florence.
1632	February	Printing of the Dialogue is completed.
	Summer	Further distribution of the Dialogo is prohibited by Pope Urban VIII and a special commission is appointed to examine the book.
	September	Based on the report by the special commission, Urban VIII refers the case to the Inquisition. The Pope himself presides over a meeting of the Inquisition in which the decision is made to summon Galileo to Rome.
	October	Galileo is notified of the summons by the Inquisitor in Florence. He promises to obey but requests that the trial be moved to Florence.
	November	At a meeting of the Inquisition presided over by Urban VIII, Galileo's request is refused. If necessary he will be forced to obey the Inquisition's order.
	December	The Florentine Inquisitor notifies Rome that he had visited Galileo, who was ill in bed, and that three physicians had signed a statement that Galileo was too ill to undertake the journey to Rome.
		At a meeting again presided over by Urban VIII himself, the Inquisition rejects Galileo's excuse as a subterfuge and sends him notification that if he does not come to Rome voluntarily he will be arrested and brought to Rome in chains.
1633	January	Galileo leaves Florence on 20 January and, after two weeks quarantine (because of the plague) just outside Rome, he arrives there on 13 February. As a special favor to Grand Duke Ferdinand II de' Medici, the Pope allowes Galileo to stay at the residence of the Tuscan ambassador. Galileo is forbidden social contacts.
	April	Galileo is formally interrogated by the Inquisition. From 12 to 30 April he is detained in the building of the Inquisition but in a comfortable apartment.
		The consultants called in to examine Galileo's Dialogue, file their reports.
		A plea bargain is arranged whereby Galileo will be allowed to plead guilty to lesser charges and will receive a lenient sentence.
		On 30 April Galileo confesses that he may have made the Copernican case in the Dialogue too strong and offers to refute it in his next book.
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	June	Urban VIII decides that Galileo will be imprisoned for an indefinte period.
		With a formal threat of torture, Galileo is examined by the Inquisition. The next day he is sentenced to prison at the pleasure of the Inqusition and to religious penances. The sentence is signed by only seven of the ten cardinal-inquisitors.
		In a formal ceremony at a the church of Santa Maria Sopra Minerva, Galileo abjures his errors.
		First Galileo is allowed to be under house arrest at the residence of the Tuscan ambassador, and then at the residence of the archbishop of Siena in that Tuscan city.
	July	Galileo arrives in Siena. Here he begins putting together his Discourse on Two New Sciences.
	December	He is allowed to return to his villa in Arcetri, near Florence, where he is under house arrest for the remainder of his life.
1634	Winter	Suffers from a painful hernia. He requests permission from Rome to consult physicians in Florence. The request is denied, and he is given to know that further requests such as this will result in imprisonment.
	April	Galileo's daughter, Maria Celeste, who has lived in a convent near Arcetri for many years, dies.
	Summer	A treatise on machines, entitled Mechanics, completed by Galileo in 1602, has been translated into French and is published in France by Marin Mersenne.
1635		A Latin translation of the Dialogue is published in Strassburg by Matthias Bernegger.
1636		Publication of Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina in both Italian and Latin.
	May	Louis Elsevier, a Dutch publisher, visits Galileo in Arcetri and agrees to publish the Discourse on Two New Sciences in Leiden.
	August	Galileo sends a proposal to the States General of the Netherlands for determining longitude at sea using eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter.
	November	The States General appoint a committee to examine Galileo's proposal.
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1637	April	The States General award Galileo a gold chain worth 500 florins in recognition of his longitude effort. His proposal was deemed not to be practical.
	July	Galileo writes to Elia Diodati that he has lost all vision in his right eye.
	November	Announces he has discovered a new libration of the Moon, different from the optical libration.
1638	January	Has lost vision in his left eye and is now totally blind. He petitions the Inquisition to be freed. The petition is denied. He is, however, allowed to transfer to his house in Florence in order to be closer to his physicians. In March he obtains permission to attend church on religious holidays, provided that he have no contact with others.
	July	The Discourse on Two New Sciences comes off the press in Leiden in the Netherlands.
	August	When the gold chain from the Dutch States General is presented to Galileo, he refuses it. For this he is commended by Pope Urban VIII.
		During a serious illness, Galileo prepares his last will and testament.
	September	John Milton visits Galileo in Arcetri.
1641		Galileo conceives of the application of the pendulum to clocks.
1642	January	Galileo dies in Arcetri on 8 January.
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�1995 Al Van Helden
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