A Political World Philosophy in terms of All-under-heaven (Tian-xia)
Abstract
This paper presents an overall view of the Philosophy of Tian-xia, a particular form of neo-universalism developed by its author and very much debated in the last years. The system of Tian-xia, or ‘all-under-heaven’, is a philosophical re-elaboration of an ancient form of Chinese universalism. The world is constituted as a global unity and a basic concept of political philosophy. It aims at a world institution as a way to rethink all problems in the world as problems of the world. Zhao Tingyang has analytically developed this view in some recent publications in Chinese. This article represents the most recent attempt to provide a synthetic view of his philosophy of ‘all-under-heaven’.
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1.
1. My theory of all-under-heaven, published in Chinese papers in 2003 and as a book in 2005, has been the subject of many reviews and debates in China. I would like to express my sincere thanks for all comments and criticism. The present paper is a newly-written and improved presentation of the theory.
2.
2. Shangshu (, Book of Documents), Chapter 1 (Documents of King Yao); this is one of the oldest Chinese books, dating from approximately 3,000 years ago, recording the words and anecdotes of the great kings of yesteryear.
3.
3. The American choice of `preemptive attacks' proclaimed a new age of military imperialism and world disorder. Cf. The National Security Strategy of the United States of America. The White House, September 2002.
4.
4. Cf. Shang-shu (, Book of Documents), Zhou-li ( Institutions of Zhou) and Liji (, Book of Rites).
5.
5. Zhou-li (Institutions of Zhou, chapter 4 )?Zuo-zhuan (Commentary of Zuo, 14th year of the reign of Duke Xian, 14 see also Chen Fuliang (1137—1203): The Military Systems of Past Dynasties ( ).
6.
6. The argument is by Li Si, the prime minister of the Qin empire; in Sima Qian (145—86 BC): Shiji, the First Emperor of Qin ( ).
7.
7. As Xunzi (313—238 BC) points out: `the world as all-under-heaven does not imply people giving up their land by force, but to have an institution which is universally accepted by all people'. Xunzi, chapter 11( ).
8.
8. Laozi Daodejing, Chapter 54 ( /54 ).
9.
9. The Chinese concept shi ( ) is defined as `what has been done', and is very close to the Western word factum. See Huainanzi: What has to be followed is the Way, and what have to be done are facts .
10.
10. Liji (Book of Rites), chapter 27 ( ).
11.
11. Shijing (Book of Songs) Xiao Ya, Bei Shan, ; see also Cai Yong Duduan, Book 1 ; Sima Guang Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government, Book 27 .
12.
12. Lüshi Chunqiu, Vol. 13 ( ).
13.
13. Lüshi Chunqiu, Vol. 1 ( ).
14.
14. Lüshi Chunqiu, Vol. 1 ( ).
15.
15. Mozi, Vol. 3 ( ).
16.
16. Lijji, Dazhuan .
17.
17. The Great Learning ( ; see also Mozi .
18.
18. Zuozhuan, 20th year of the reign of Duke Zhao.
19.
19. Guoyu (Discourses of the states, Discourses of Zheng).
20.
20. Liji, chapter 19. .
21.
21. Zuozhuan, 20th year of the reign of Duke Zhao.
22.
22. This is an extended version of a Confucian golden rule (Analects, ch. 6).
23.
23. My criticism on Habermas' theory of communication can be found in Zhao Tingyang (2003).
References
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Nye, J. (2002) The Paradox of American Power: Why the World's Only Superpower Can't Go It Alone. Oxford/ New York: Oxford University Press.
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Schmitt, C. (1996) The Concept of the Political. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Wight, Martin (1966) `Why is There No International Theory?' in H. Butterfield and M. Wight (ed.) Diplomatic Investigation: essays in the theory of international politics. London: George Allen & Unwin.
Zhao Tingyang (2003a) [On Possible Lives] Beijing : Renmin University Press.
Zhao Tingyang (2003b) `Understanding and Acceptance', in: Alain Le Pichon (ed.) Les assises de la connaissance réciproque. Paris: Le Robert.
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