Review
Chemistry, Pharmacology and Health Benefits of Anthocyanins
Antonella Smeriglio,
Davide Barreca,
Ersilia Bellocco,
Domenico Trombetta,
Antonella Smeriglio
University of Messina, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, Viale F. Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
Search for more papers by this authorDavide Barreca
University of Messina, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, Viale F. Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
Search for more papers by this authorErsilia Bellocco
University of Messina, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, Viale F. Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Domenico Trombetta
University of Messina, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, Viale F. Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
Correspondence to: Dr Domenico Trombetta, University of Messina, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, Viale F. Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this author
Antonella Smeriglio,
Davide Barreca,
Ersilia Bellocco,
Domenico Trombetta,
Antonella Smeriglio
University of Messina, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, Viale F. Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
Search for more papers by this authorDavide Barreca
University of Messina, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, Viale F. Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
Search for more papers by this authorErsilia Bellocco
University of Messina, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, Viale F. Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Domenico Trombetta
University of Messina, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, Viale F. Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
Correspondence to: Dr Domenico Trombetta, University of Messina, Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, Viale F. Stagno d'Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Anthocyanins are naturally occurring molecules belonging to the flavonoid class characterized by the presence of chromophores. Apart from their well-known antioxidant activity, they show a wide variety of health-promoting properties for human health, ranging from cytoprotective, antimicrobial and antitumour activities to neuroprotective, anti-obesity and lipidomic potential, properties for which anthocyanins have been prescribed as medicines in several countries for thousands of years. Despite this, these phytochemicals have received less attention than other flavonoids, and there is still a gap in the literature, particularly regarding pharmacological and toxicological aspects. Moreover, epidemiological evidence suggests a direct correlation between anthocyanin intake and a lower incidence of chronic and degenerative diseases. In light of this, the aim of this review is to cover the current literature on anthocyanins, their biological in vitro and in vivo effects and their potential therapeutic applications, as well as their bioavailability and pharmacokinetics, all of which are essential to gain a better understanding of their biological effectiveness and potential toxicity. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
References
- Abdel-Aal ES, Abou-Arab AA, Gamel TH, Hucl P, Young JC, Rabalski I. 2008. Fractionation of blue wheat anthocyanin compounds and their contribution to antioxidant properties. J Agric Food Chem 56: 11171–11177.
- Acquaviva R, Russo A, Galvano F, et al. 2003. Cyanidin and cyanidin 3-O-beta-D-glucoside as DNA cleavage protectors and antioxidants. Cell Biol Toxicol 19: 243–252.
- Adhikari DP, Francis JA, Schutzki RE, Chandra A, Nair MG. 2005. Quantification and characterisation of cyclo-oxygenase and lipid peroxidation inhibitory anthocyanins in fruits of Amelanchier. Phytochem Anal 16: 175–180.
- Afaq F, Saleem M, Krueger CG, Reed JD, Mukhtar H. 2005. Anthocyanin and hydrolyzable tannin-rich pomegranate fruit extract modulates MAPK and NF-kappa B pathways and inhibits skin tumorigenesis in CD-1 mice. Int J Cancer 113: 423–433.
- Al-Awwadi NA, Araiz C, Bornet A, Delbosc S, Cristol JP, Linck N, Azay J, Teissedre PL, Cros G. 2005. Extracts enriched in different polyphenolic families normalize increased cardiac NADPH oxidase expression while having differential effects on insulin resistance, hypertension, and cardiac hypertrophy in high-fructose-fed rats. J Agric Food Chem 53(1): 151–157.
- Allen RG, Tresini M. 2000. Oxidative status and gene regulation. Free Radic Biol Med 28: 463–499.
- Andersen ØM, Jordheim M. 2006. The anthocyanins. In Flavonoids: Chemistry, Biochemistry and Applications, ØM Andersen, KR Markham (eds) (eds), 2nd edn. CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL; 452–471.
- Anderson JW, Randles KM, Kendall CW, Jenkins DJ. 2004. Carbohydrate and fiber recommendations for individuals with diabetes: a quantitative assessment and meta-analysis of the evidence. J Am Coll Nutr 23: 5–17.
- Arts ICW, Sesink AL, Faassen-Peters M, Hollman PCH. 2004. The type of sugar moiety is a major determinant of the small intestinal uptake and subsequent biliary excretion of dietary quercetin glycosides. Br J Nutr 91: 841–847.
- Asgary S, Sahebkar A, Afshani MR, Keshvari M, Haghjooyjavanmard S, Rafieian-Kopaei M. 2014. Clinical evaluation of blood pressure lowering, endothelial function improving, hypolipidemic and anti-inflammatory effects of pomegranate juice in hypertensive subjects. Phytother Res 28(2): 193–199.
- Aura AM, Martin-Lopez P, O'Leary KA, et al. 2005. In vitro metabolism of anthocyanins by human gut microflora. Eur J Nutr 44: 133–142.
- Aviram M, Kaplan M, Rosenblat M, Fuhrman B. 2005. Dietary antioxidants and paraoxonases against LDL oxidation and atherosclerosis development. Handb Exp Pharmacol 170: 263–300.
- Bagchi D, Sen CK, Bagchi M, Atalay M. 2004. Anti-angiogenic, antioxidant, and anti-carcinogenic properties of a novel anthocyanin-rich berry extract formula. Biochem Mosc 69: 75–78.
- Barreca D, Bellocco E, Leuzzi U, Gattuso G. 2014. First evidence of C- and O-glycosyl flavone in blood orange (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) juice and their influence on antioxidant properties. Food Chem 149: 244–252.
- Bartikova H, Skalova L, Drsata J, Bousova I. 2013. Interaction of anthocyanins with drug-metabolizing and antioxidant enzymes. Curr Med Chem 20: 4665–4679.
- Bendia E, Benedetti A, Baroni GS, et al. 2005. Effect of cyanidin 3-O-beta-glucopyranoside on hepatic stellate cell proliferation and collagen synthesis induced by oxidative stress. Dig Liver Dis 37: 342–348.
- Bertuglia S, Malandrino S, Colantuoni A. 1995. Effect of Vaccinium myrtillus anthocyanosides on ischaemia reperfusion injury in hamster cheek pouch microcirculation. Pharmacol Res 31(3–4): 183–187.
- Boivin D, Blanchette M, Barrette S, Moghrabi A, B'eliveau R. 2007. Inhibition of cancer cell proliferation and suppression of TNF-induced activation of NF kappa B by edible berry juice. Anticancer Res 27: 937–948.
- Bolling BW, Chen CY, McKay DL, Blumberg JB. 2011. Tree nut phytochemicals: composition, antioxidant capacity, bioactivity, impact factors. A systematic review of almonds, Brazils, cashews, hazelnuts, macadamias, pecans, pine nuts, pistachios and walnuts. Nutr Res Rev 24(2): 244–275.
- Bosetti C, Bravi F, Talamini R, et al. 2006. Flavonoids and prostate cancer risk: a study in Italy. Nutr Cancer 56: 123–127.
- Brandstetter H, Grams F, Glitz D, et al. 2001. The 1.8-A crystal structure of a matrix metalloproteinase 8-barbiturate inhibitor complex reveals a previously unobserved mechanism for collagenase substrate recognition. J Biol Chem 276: 17405–17412.
- Bravetti GO, Fraboni E, Maccolini E. 1988. Preventive medical treatment of senile cataract with vitamin E and Vaccinium myrtillus anthocyanosides: Clinical evaluation. Ann Ottalmol Clin Ocul 115: 109–116.
- Bruce WR, Wolever TMS, Giacca A. 2000. Mechanisms linking diet and colorectal cancer: the possible role of insulin resistance. Nutr Cancer 37: 19–26.
- Burdulis D, Sarkinas A, Jasutien'e I, Stackevicen'e E, Nikolajevas L, Janulis V. 2009. Comparative study of anthocyanin composition, antimicrobial and antioxidant activity in bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) and blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) fruits. Acta Pol Pharm 66: 399–408.
- Camire ME. 2000. Herbs Botanicals and Teas. In Bilberries and blueberries as functional foods and nutraceuticals. Technomic Publishing Companyp: Lancaster, PA; 289–319.
- Canter PH, Ernst E. 2004. Anthocyanosides of Vaccinium myrtillus (bilberry) for night vision–a systematic review of placebo-controlled trials. Surv Ophthalmol 49: 38–50.
- Cao G, Russell R, Lischner N. 1998. Serum antioxidant capacity is increate by consumption of strawberries, spinach, red wine or vitamin C in elderly women. J Nutr 128: 2383–2390.
- Castañeda-Ovando A, Pacheco-Hernández M, Páez-Hernández ME, Rodríguez JA, Galán-Vidal CA. 2009. Chemical studies of anthocyanins: a review. Food Chem 113: 859–871.
- Cesna V, Baniene R, Maziukiene A, et al. 2015. Effects of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside on synthetic and metabolic activity of ethanol stimulated human pancreatic stellate cells. Phytother Res 29(12): 1894–1900.
- Cesoniene L, Jasutiene I, Sarkinas A. 2009. Phenolics and anthocyanins in berries of European cranberry and their antimicrobial activity. Medicina (Kaunas) 45: 992–999.
- Castilla P, Dávalos A, Teruel JL, Cerrato F, Fernández-Lucas M, Merino JL, Sánchez-Martín CC, Ortuño J, Lasunción MA. 2008. Comparative effects of dietary supplementation with red grape juice and vitamin E on production of superoxide by circulating neutrophil NADPH oxidase in hemodialysis patients. Am J Clin Nutr 87(4): 1053–1061.
- Chang YC, Huang HP, Hsu JD, Yang SF, Wang CJ. 2005. Hibiscus anthocyanins rich extract-induced apoptotic cell death in human promyelocytic leukemia cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 205: 201–212.
- Chatterjee A, Yasmin T, Bagchi D, Stohs SJ. 2004. Inhibition of Helicobacter pylori in vitro by various berry extracts, with enhanced susceptibility to clarithromycin. Mol Cell Biochem 265(1–2): 19–26.
- Chen C, Yi L, Jin X, et al. 2011. Inhibitory effect of delphinidin on monocyte-endothelial cell adhesion induced by oxidized low-density lipoprotein via ROS/p38MAPK/NF-kB pathway. Cell Biochem Biophys 61(2): 337–348.
- Chrubasik-Hausmann S, Vlachojannis C, Zimmermann B. 2014. Pomegranate juice and prostate cancer: importance of the characterisation of the active principle. Phytother Res 28(11): 1676–1678.
- Chun OK, Kim DO, Lee CY. 2003. Quantification of polyphenolics and their antioxidant capacity in fresh plums. J Agric Food Chem 55(22): 6509–6515.
- Cimino F, Ambra R, Canali R, Saija A, Virgili F. 2006. Effect of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside on UVB-induced response in human keratinocytes. J Agric Food Chem 54(11): 4041–4047.
- Cisowska A, Wojnicz D, Hendrich AB. 2011. Anthocyanins as antimicrobial agents of natural plant origin. Nat Prod Commun 6(1): 149–156.
- Clifford MN. 2000. Anthocyanins–nature, occurrence and dietary burden. J Sci Food Agric 80: 1063–1072.
- Cooke D, Steward WP, Gescher AJ, Marczylo T. 2005. Anthocyans from fruits and vegetables–does bright colour signal cancer chemopreventive activity? Eur J Cancer 41(13): 1931–1940.
- Cooke D, Schwarz M, Boocock D, et al. 2006. Effect of cyanidin-3-glucoside and an anthocyanin mixture from bilberry on adenoma development in the ApcMin mouse model of intestinal carcinogenesis--relationship with tissue anthocyanin levels. Int J Cancer 119(9): 2213–2220.
- Cooney JM, Jensen DJ, McGhie TK. 2004. LC-MS identification of anthocyanins in boysenberry extract and anthocyanin metabolites in human urine following dosing. J Sci Food Agric 84(3): 237–245.
- Coussens L, Werb Z. 2002. Inflammation and cancer. Nature 420(6917): 860–867.
- Cox GE and Babish JC. 1978. Evaluation of the safety of dietary administration of special grape color powder (type BW-AT) on reproduction, lactation and maturation when fed to SpragueDawley rats. Unpublished report No. 5417 by Food and Drug Research Laboratories, Inc., submitted to the World Health Organization by FDA (as referred to by JECFA, 1982).
- Crozier A, Jaganath IB, Clifford MN. 2009. Dietary phenolics: chemistry, bioavailability and effects on health. Nat Prod Rep 26(8): 1001–1043.
- Cvorovic J, Tramer F, Granzotto M, Candussio L, Decorti G, Passamonti S. 2010. Oxidative stress-based cytotoxicity of delphinidin and cyanidin in colon cancer cells. Arch Biochem Biophys 501: 151–157.
- Delgado-Vargas F, Paredes-Lopez O. 2003. Natural colorants for food and nutraceutical uses. CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL.
- Dreiseitel A, Schreier P, Oehme A, Locher S, Hajak G, Sand PG. 2008. Anthocyanins and their metabolites are weak inhibitors of cytochrome P450 3A4. Mol Nutr Food Res 52(12): 1428–1433.
- Dreiseitel A, Schreier P, Oehme A, et al. 2009. Anthocyanins and anthocyanidins are poor inhibitors of CYP2D6. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 31(1): 3–9.
- EFSA. 2013. Re-evaluation of anthocyanins (E 163) as a food additive. EFSA J 11(4): 3145–3196.
- Ellingsen I, Hjerkinn EM, Seljeflot I, Arnesen H, Tonstad S. 2008. Consumption of fruit and berries is inversely associated with carotid atherosclerosis in elderly men. Br J Nutr 99(3): 674–681.
- Erlund I, Koli R, Alfthan G, Marniemi J. 2008. Favorable effects of berry consumption on platelet function, blood pressure, and HDL cholesterol. Am J Clin Nutr 87: 323–331.
- Favot L, Martin S, Keravis T, Andriantsitohaina R, Lugnier C. 2003. Involvement of cyclin-dependent pathway in the inhibitory effect of delphinidin on angiogenesis. Cardiovasc Res 59(2): 479–487.
- Felgines C, Talavera S, Gonthier MP, et al. 2003. J Nutr 133(5): 1296–1301.
- Felgines C, Talavera S, Texier O, Gil-Izquierdo A, Lamaison JL, Remesy C. 2005. J Agric Food Chem 53(20): 7721–7727.
- Feng R, Ni H, Wang SY, et al. 2007. Cyanidin-3-rutinoside, a natural polyphenol antioxidant, selectively kills leukemic cells by induction of oxidative stress. J Biol Chem 282(18): 13468–13476.
- Fernandes I, de Freitas V, Reis C, Mateus N. 2012. New approach on the gastric absorption of anthocyanins. Food Funct 3: 508–516.
- Forester SC, Waterhouse AL. 2008. Identification of Cabernet Sauvignon anthocyanin gut microflora metabolites. J Agric Food Chem 56(19): 9299–9304.
- Freedman JE, Parker C 3rd, Li L, Perlman JA, Frei B, Ivanov V, Deak LR, Iafrati MD, Folts JD. 2001. Select flavonoids and whole juice from purple grapes inhibit platelet function and enhance nitric oxide release. Circulation 103(23): 2792–2798.
- Fukumoto L, Mazza G. 2000. Assessing antioxidant and prooxidant activities of phenolic compounds. J Agric Food Chem 48(8): 3597–3604.
- Gachovska T, Cassada D, Subbiah J, Hanna M, Thippareddi H, Snow D. 2010. Enhanced anthocyanin extraction from red cabbage using pulsed electric field processing. J Food Sci 75(6): E323–E329.
- Galli RL, Bielinski DF, Szprengiel A, Shukitt-Hale B, Joseph JA. 2006. Blueberry supplemented diet reverses age-related decline in hippocampal HSP70 neuroprotection. Neurobiol Aging 27(2): 344–350.
- Garcia-Alonso M, Minihane AM, Rimbach G, Rivas-Gonzalo JC, de Pascual-Teresa S. 2009. Red wine anthocyanins are rapidly absorbed in humans and affect monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 levels and antioxidant capacity of plasma. J Nutr Biochem 20(7): 521–529.
- Ghosh D, Konishi T. 2007a. Anthocyanins and anthocyanin-rich extracts: role in diabetes and eye function. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 16: 200–208.
- Ghosh D, Konishi T. 2007b. Anthocyanins and anthocyanin-rich extracts: role in diabetes and eye function. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 16(2): 200–208.
- Giampieri F, Alvarez-Suarez JM, Tulipani S, et al. 2012. J Agric Food Chem 60(9): 2322–2327.
- Giusti MM, Wrolstad RE. 2003. Acylated anthocyanins from edible sources and their applications in food systems. Biochem Eng J 14: 217–225.
- González-Barrio R, Borges G, Mullen W, Crozier A. 2010. Bioavailability of anthocyanins and ellagitannins following consumption of raspberries by healthy humans and subjects with an ileostomy. J Agric Food Chem 58(7): 3933–3939.
- Gonzalez FJ, Tukey RH. 2006. Drug metabolism. In Goodman and Gilman's the Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, LL Brunton, J Lazo, K Parker (eds) (ed). McGraw-Hill: New York; 71–92.
- Goodman CD, Casati P, Walbot V. 2004. A multidrug resistance-associated protein involved in anthocyanin transport in Zea mays. Plant Cell 16: 1812–1826.
- Goyarzu P, Malin DH, Lau FC, et al. 2004. Blueberry supplemented diet: effects on object recognition memory and nuclear factor kappa B levels in aged rats. Nutr Neurosci 7: 75–83.
- Guerra MC, Galvano F, Bonsi L, et al. 2005. Cyanidin-3-O-beta-glucopyranoside, a natural free-radical scavenger against aflatoxin B1- and ochratoxin A-induced cell damage in a human hepatoma cell line (Hep G2) and a human colonic adenocarcinoma cell line (CaCo-2).Br. J Nutr 94(2): 211–220.
- Gupta S, Sodhi S, Mahajan V. 2009. Correlation of antioxidants with lipid peroxidation and lipid profile in patients suffering from coronary artery disease. Expert Opin Ther Targets 13(8): 889–894.
- Halliwell B. 2008. Are polyphenols antioxidants or pro-oxidants? What do we learn from cell culture and in vivo studies? Arch Biochem Biophys 476(2): 107–112.
- Hansen-Krone IJ, Braekkan SK, Enga KF, Wilsgaard T, Hansen JB. 2011. Alcohol consumption, types of alcoholic beverages and risk of venous thrombo-embolism–the Tromso study. Thromb Haemost 106: 272–278.
- Hassellund SS, Flaa A, Kjeldsen SE, et al. 2013. Effects of anthocyanins on cardiovascular risk factors and inflammation in pre-hypertensive men: a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled crossover study. J Hum Hypertens 27(2): 100–106.
- He J, Giusti MM. 2010. Anthocyanins: natural colorants with health-promoting properties. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 1: 163–187.
- He J, Wallace TC, Keatley KE, Failla ML, Giusti MM. 2009. Stability of black raspberry anthocyanins in the digestive tract lumen and transport efficiency into gastric and small intestinal tissues in the rat. J Agric Food Chem 57: 3141–3148.
- Hollman PCH. 2004. Absorption, bioavailability, and metabolism of flavonoids. Arch Physiol Biochem 42(s1): 74–83.
- Hou DX, Ose T, Lin S, et al. 2003. Anthocyanidins induce apoptosis in human promyelocytic leukemia cells: structure–activity relationship and mechanisms involved. Intl J Oncol 23(3): 705–712.
- Hou DX, Yanagita T, Uto T, Masuzaki S, Fujii M. 2005. Anthocyanidins inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 expression in LPS-evoked macrophages: structure–activity relationship and molecular mechanisms involved. Biochem Pharmacol 70(3): 417–425.
- Hou DX. 2003. Potential mechanisms of cancer chemoprevention by anthocyanins. Curr Mol Med 3(2): 149–159.
- Huang C, Li J, Song L, et al. 2006. Black raspberry extracts inhibit benzo(a)pyrene diol-epoxide-induced activator protein 1 activation and VEGF transcription by targeting the phosphotidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway. Cancer Res 66(1): 581–587.
- Ichiyanagi T, Shida Y, Rahman MM, Hatano Y, Konishi T. 2005. Extended glucuronidation is another major path of cyaniding 3-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside metabolism in rats. J Agric Food Chem 53(18): 7312–7319.
- Ichiyanagi T, Shida Y, Rahman MM, Hatano Y, Konishi T. 2006. Bioavailability and tissue distribution of anthocyanins in bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) extract in rats. J Agric Food Chem 54(18): 6578–6587.
- Igwe EO, Charlton KE. 2016. A systematic review on the health effects of plums (Prunus domestica and Prunus salicina). Phytother Res 30(5): 701–731.
- Iida H, Nakamura Y, Matsumoto H, et al. 2010. Effect of black-currant extract on negative lens-induced ocular growth in chicks. Ophthalmic Res 44(4): 242–250.
- Iwai K, Kim MY, Onodera A, Matsue H. 2006. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitory and antihyperglycemic effects of polyphenols in the fruit of Viburnum dilatatum Thunb. J Agric Food Chem 54(13): 4588–4592.
- Jakobek L, Seruga M, Medvidovi-Kosaannodvic M, Novak I. 2007. Anthocyanin content and antioxidant activity of various red fruit juice. Deutsch Leebensmitlel-Rundshau 103: 58–64.
- JECFA 26th report, 1982. WHO/FAO Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives. Toxicological evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. WHO Food Additives Series, No 17.
- Jing P, Bomser JA, Schwartz SJ, He J, Magnuson BA, Giusti MM. 2008. Structure–function relationships of anthocyanins from various anthocyanin-rich extracts on the inhibition of colon cancer cell growth. J Agric Food Chem 56(20): 9391–9398.
- Jing P, Giusti MM. 2005. Characterization of anthocyanin-rich waste from purple corncobs (Zea mays L.) and its application to color milk. J Agric Food Chem 53: 8775–8781.
- Joseph JA, Denisova NA, Arendash G, et al. 2003. Blueberry supplementation enhances signaling and prevents behavioral deficits in an Alzheimer disease model. Nutr Neurosci 6(3): 153–162.
- Jung KJ, Wallig MA, Singletary KW. 2006. Purple grape juice inhibits 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced rat mammary tumorigenesis and in vivo DMBA-DNA adduct formation. Cancer Lett 233(2): 279–288.
- Kahkonen MP, Heinonen M. 2003. Antioxidant activity of anthocyanins and their aglycons. J Agric Food Chem 51(3): 628–633.
- Kalt W, Blumberg JB, McDonald JE, et al. 2008. Identification of anthocyanins in the liver, eye, and brain of blueberry-fed pigs. J Agric Food Chem 56(3): 705–712.
- Kamiloglu S, Capanoglu E, Grootaert C, Van Camp J. 2015. Anthocyanin absorption and metabolism by human intestinal caco-2 cells–a review. Int J Mol Sci 16(9): 21555–21574.
- Kamiyama M, Kishimoto Y, Tani M, Andoh K, Utsunomiya K, Kondo K. 2009. Inhibition of low-density lipoprotein oxidation by Nagano purple grape (Vitis viniferaxVitis labrusca). J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) 55(6): 471–478.
- Kaneko T, Tahara S, Baba N. 2003. Inhibition of linoleic acid hydroperoxide-induced toxicity in cultured human fibroblasts by anthocyanidins. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 67(6): 1391–1393.
- Kang SY, Seeram NP, Nair MG, Bourquin LD. 2003. Tart cherry anthocyanins inhibit tumor development in ApcMin mice and reduce proliferation of human colon cancer cells. Cancer Lett 194(1): 13–19.
- Kay CD, Mazza G, Holub BJ, Wang J. 2004. Anthocyanin metabolites in human urine and serum. Brit J Nutr 91: 923–933.
- Kay CD, Mazza G, Holub BJ. 2005. Anthocyanins exist in the circulation primarily as metabolites in adult men. J Nutr 135(11): 2582–2588.
- Kay CD. 2006. Aspects of anthocyanin absorption, metabolism and pharmacokinetics in humans. Nutr Res Rev 19(1): 137–146.
- Keppler K, Humpf H-U. 2005. Metabolism of anthocyanins and their phenolic degradation products by the intestinal microflora. Bioorg Med Chem 13: 5195–5205.
- Kianbakht S, Abasi B, Hashem Dabaghian F. 2014. Improved lipid profile in hyperlipidemic patients taking Vaccinium arctostaphylos fruit hydroalcoholic extract: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Phytother Res 28(3): 432–436.
- Kim H, Yoon YJ, Shon JH, Cha IJ, Shin JG, Liu KH. 2006. Inhibitory effects of fruit juices on CYP3A activity. Drug Metab Dispos 34(4): 521–523.
- Kimura Y, Ito H, Ohnishi R, Hatano T. 2010. Inhibitory effects of polyphenols on human cytochrome P450 3A4 and 2C9 activity. Food Chem Toxicol 48(1): 429–435.
- Klatsky AL. 2001. Could abstinence from alcohol be hazardous to your health? Int J Epidemiol 30: 739–742.
- Kolosova NG, Shcheglova TV, Sergeeva SV, Loskutova LV. 2006. Long term antioxidant supplementationattenuates oxidative stress markers and cognitive deficits in senescent-accelerated OXYS rats. Neurobiol Aging 27: 1289–1297.
- Kong JM, Chia LS, Goh NK, Chia TF, Brouillard R. 2003. Analysis and biological activities of anthocyanins. Phytochemistry 64(5): 923–933.
- Krikorian R, Nash TA, Shidler MD, Shukitt-Hale B, Joseph JA. 2010. Concord grape juice supplementation improves memory function in older adults with mild cognitive impairment. Br J Nutr 103(5): 730–734.
- Kumar S, Narwal S, Kumar V, Prakash O. 2011. α-glucosidase inhibitors from plants: a natural approach to treat diabetes. Pharmacogn Rev 5(9): 19–29.
- Kurilich AC, Clevidence BA, Britz SJ, Simon PW, Novotny JA. 2005. Plasma and urine responses are lower for acylated vs nonacylated anthocyanins from raw and cooked purple carrots. J Agric Food Chem 53(16): 6537–6542.
- Lacombe A, Wu VCH, Tyler S, Edwards K. 2010. Antimicrobial action of the American cranberry constituents; phenolics, anthocyanins, and organic acids, against Escherichia coli O157:H7. Intl J Food Microbiol 139(1–2): 102–107.
- Lala G, Malik M, Zhao C, et al. 2006. Anthocyanin-rich extracts inhibit multiple biomarkers of colon cancer in rats. Nutr Cancer 54: 84–93.
- Lampe JW, Chang JL. 2007. Interindividual differences in phytochemical metabolism and disposition. Semin Cancer Biol 17: 347–353.
- Lazze MC, Pizzala R, Savio M, Stivala LA, Prosperi E, Bianchi L. 2003. Anthocyanins protect against DNA damage induced by tert-butyl-hydroperoxide in rat smooth muscle and hepatoma cells. Mutat Res 535(1): 103–115.
- Lee J, Durst RW, Wrolstad RE. 2005. Determination of total monomeric anthocyanin pigment content of fruit juices, beverages, natural colorants, and wines by the pH differential method: collaborative study. J AOAC Int 88(5): 1269–1278.
- Levantesi G, Marfisi R, Mozaffarian D, et al. 2013. Wine consumption and risk of cardiovascular events after myocardial infarction: results from the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Intl J Cardiol 163(3): 282–287.
- Levy Y, Glovinsky Y. 1998. The effect of anthocyanosides on night vision. Eye (Lond) 12(Pt 6): 967–969.
- Lida H, Nakamura Y, Matsumoto H, Takeuchi Y, Harano S, Ishihara M, Katsumi O. 2010. Effect of black-currant extract on negative lens-induced ocular growth in chicks. 44(4): 242–250.
- Lucioli S. 2012. Anthocyanins: mechanism of action and therapeutic efficacy. In Medicinal Plants as Antioxidant Agents: Understanding Their Mechanism of Action and Therapeutic Efficacy, A Capasso (ed) (ed.). Research Signpost: India; 27–57. ISBN:97881-308-0509-2.
- Magnuson BA, Lala G, Kwon YJ. 2003. Anthocyanin-rich extracts inhibit growth of human colon cancer cells and azoxymethane-induced colon aberrant crypts in rats: implications for colon cancer chemoprevention. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 12: 1323s–1324s.
- Manach C, Williamson G, Morand C, Scalbert A, Rémésy C. 2005. Bioavailability and bioefficacy of polyphenols in humans. I. Review of 97 bioavailability studies. Am J Clin Nutr 81: 230S–242S.
- Marinova K, Kleinschmidt K, Weissenbock G, Klein M. 2007a. Flavonoid biosynthesis in barley primary leaves requires the presence of the vacuole and controls the activity of vacuolar flavonoid transport. Plant Physiol 144: 432–444.
- Marinova K, Pourcel L, Weder B, et al. 2007b. The Arabidopsis MATE transport TT12 acts as a vacuolar flavonoid/ H + −antiporter active in proanthocyanidin-accumulating cells of the seed coat. Plant Cell 19: 2023–2038.
- Matsufuji H, Shibamoto T. 2004. Inhibition of malonaldehyde formation in oxidized calf thymus DNA with synthetic and natural antioxidants. J Agric Food Chem 52(18): 5759–5763.
- Matsui T, Ebuchi S, Fukui K, Matsugano K, Terahara N, Matsumoto K. 2004. Caffeoylsophorose, a new natural alpha-glucosidase inhibitor, from red vinegar by fermented purple-fleshed sweet potato. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 68(11): 2239–2246.
- Matsui T, Ebuchi S, Kobayashi M, et al. 2002. J Agric Food Chem 50: 7244–7248.
- Matsui T, Ueda T, Oki T, Sugita K, Terahara N, Matsumoto K. 2001. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitory action of natural acylated anthocyanins. 2. Alpha-glucosidase inhibition by isolated acylated anthocyanins. J Agric Food Chem 49(4): 1952–1956.
- Matsumoto H, Ichiyanagi T, Iida H, et al. 2006a. Ingested delphinidin-3-rutinoside is primarily excreted to urine as the intact form and to bile as the methylated form in rats. J Agric Food Chem 54(2): 578–582.
- Matsumoto H, Inaba H, Kishi M, Tominaga S, Hirayama M, Tsuda T. 2001. Orally administered delphinidin 3-rutinoside and cyanidin 3-rutinoside are directly absorbed in rats and humans and appear in the blood as the intact forms. J Agric Food Chem 49(3): 1546–1551.
- Matsumoto H, Kamm KE, Stull JT, Azuma H. 2005. Delphinidin-3-rutinoside relaxes the bovine ciliary smooth muscle through activation of ETB receptor and NO/cGMP pathway. Exp Eye Res 80(3): 313–322.
- Matsumoto H, Nakamura Y, Iida H, Ito K, Ohguro H. 2006b. Comparative assessment of distribution of blackcurrant anthocyanins in rabbit and rat ocular tissues. Exp Eye Res 83(2): 348–356.
- Matuschek MC, Hendriks WH, McGhie TK, Reynolds GW. 2006. The jejunum is the main site of absorption for anthocyanins in mice. J Nutr Biochem 17(1): 31–36.
- Mauray A, Felgines C, Morand C, Mazur A, Scalbert A, Milenkovic D. 2012. Bilberry anthocyanin-rich extract alters expression of genes related to atherosclerosis development in aorta of apo E-deficient mice. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 22(1): 72–80.
- Mazza G, Cacace JE, Kay CD. 2004. Methods of analysis for anthocyanins in plants and biological fluids. J AOAC Int 87(1): 129–145.
- Mazza G, Kay CD, Cottrell T, Holub BJ. 2002a. Absorption of anthocyanins from blueberries and serum antioxidant status in human subjects. J Agric Food Chem 50(26): 7731–7737.
- Mazza G, Kay CD, Cottrell T, Holub BJ. 2002b. Absorption of anthocyanins from blueberries and serum antioxidant status in human subjects. J Agric Food Chem 50(26): 7731–7737.
- Mazza G. 2007. Anthocyanins and heart health. Ann Ist Super Sanita 43(4): 369–374.
- McGhie TK, Walton MC. 2007. The bioavailability and absorption of anthocyanins: towards a better understanding. Mol Nutr Food Res 51(6): 702–713.
- Milbury PE, Kalt W. 2010. Xenobiotic metabolism and berry flavonoid transport across the blood–brain barrier. J Agric Food Chem 58(7): 3950–3956.
- Milbury PE, Vita JA, Blumberg JB. 2010. Anthocyanins are bioavailable in humans following an acute dose of cranberry juice. J Nutr 140: 1099–1104.
- Mink PJ, Scrafford CG, Barraj LM, et al. 2007. Flavonoid intake and cardiovascular disease mortality: a prospective study in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 85(3): 895–909.
- Mousavinejad G, Emam-Djomeh Z, Rezaei K, Khodaparast MHH. 2009. Identification and quantification of phenolic compounds and their effects on antioxidant activity in pomegranate juices of eight Iranian cultivars. Food Chem 115: 1274–1278.
- Mulabagal V, Van Nocker S, Dewitt DL, Nair MG. 2007. Cultivars of apple fruits that are not marketed with potential for anthocyanin production. J Agric Food Chem 55(20): 8165–8169.
- Mülleder U, Murkovic M, Pfannhauser W. 2002. Urinary excretion of cyanidin glycosides. J Biochem Biophys Meth 53(1–3): 61–66.
- Mullen W, Larcombe S, Arnold K, Welchman H, Crozier A. 2010. Use of accurate mass full scan mass spectrometry for the analysis of anthocyanins in berries and berry-fed tissues. J Agric Food Chem 58(7): 3910–3915.
- Muth ER, Laurent JM, Jasper P. 2000. The effect of bilberry nutritional supplementation on night visual acuity and contrast sensitivity. Altern Med Rev 5(2): 164–173.
- Nabavi SF, Habtemariam S, Daglia M, Shafighi N, Barber AJ, Nabavi SM. 2015. Anthocyanins as a potential therapy for diabetic retinopathy. Curr Med Chem 22(1): 51–58.
- Nakaishi H, Matsumoto H, Tominaga S, Hirayama M. 2000. Effects of black current anthocyanoside intake on dark adaptation and VDTwork-induced transient refractive alteration in healthy humans. Altern Med Rev 5: 553–562.
- Naz S, Siddiqi R, Ahmad S, Rasool SA, Sayeed SA. 2007. Antibacterial activity directed isolation of compounds from Punica granatum. J Food Sci 72(9): M341–M345.
- Neveu V, Perez-Jiménez J, Vos F, et al.. 2010. Phenol-Explorer: an online comprehensive database on polyphenol contents in foods. Database. Available from: http://www.phenol-explorer.eu/.
- Ngo N, Yan Z, Graf TN, et al. 2009. Identification of a cranberry juice product that inhibits enteric CYP3A-mediated first-pass metabolism in humans. Drug Metab Dispos 37(3): 514–522.
- Nicolin V, Grill V, Micali F, Narducci P, Passamonti S. 2005. Immunolocalisation of bilitranslocase in mucosecretory and parietal cells of the rat gastric mucosa. J Mol Histol 36(1–2): 45–50.
- Nohynek LJ, Alakomi HL, Kähkönen MP, et al. 2006. Berry phenolics: antimicrobial properties and mechanisms of action against severe human pathogens. Nutr Cancer 54(1): 18–32.
- Ogawa K, Sakakibara H, Iwata R, et al. 2008. Anthocyanin composition and antioxidant activity of the crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) and other berries. J Agric Food Chem 56: 4457–4462.
- Ohara A, Matsuhisa T. 2004. Effects of diet composition on mutagenic activity in urine. Biofactors 22(1–4): 115–118.
- Ohguro H, Ohguro I, Katai M, Tanaka S. 2012. Two-year randomized, placebo-controlled study of black currant anthocyanins on visual field in glaucoma. Ophthalmologica 228(1): 26–35.
- Ohguro I, Ohguro H, Nakazawa M. 2007. Effects of anthocyanins in black currant on retinal blood flow circulation of patients with normal tension glaucoma. A pilot study. Hirosaki Med J 59: 23–32.
- Paller CJ, Ye X, Wozniak PJ, et al. 2013. A randomized phase II study of pomegranate extract for men with rising PSA following initial therapy for localized prostate cancer. Prostat CancerProstatic Dis 16: 50–55.
- Pantuck AJ, Leppert JT, Zomorodian N, et al. 2006. Phase II study of pomegranate juice for men with rising prostate-specific antigen following surgery or radiation for prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 12: 4018–4026.
- Passamonti S, Terdoslavich M, Franca R, et al. 2009. Bioavailability of flavonoids: a review of their membrane transport and the function of bilitranslocase in animal and plant organisms. Curr Drug Metab 10(4): 369–394.
- Passamonti S, Vrhovsek U, Mattivi F. 2002. The interaction of anthocyanins with bilitranslocase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 296(3): 631–636.
- Passamonti S, Vrhovsek U, Vanzo A, Mattivi F. 2003. The stomach as a site for anthocyanins absorption from food. FEBS Lett 544(1–3): 210–213.
- Pérez-Gregorio RM, García-Falcón MS, Simal-Gándara J, Rodrigues AN, Almeidac DPF. 2010. Identification and quantification of flavonoids in traditional cultivars of red and white onions at harvest. J Food Comp Anal 23: 592–598.
- Pérez-Jiménez J, Hubert J, Hooper L, et al. 2010. Urinary metabolites as biomarkers of polyphenol intake in humans: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 92(4): 801–809.
- Pergola C, Rossi A, Dugo P, Cuzzocrea S, Sautebin L. 2006. Inhibition of nitric oxide biosynthesis by anthocyanin fraction of blackberry extract. Nitric Oxide 15: 30–39.
- Pojer E, Mattivi F, Johnson D, Stockley CS. 2013. The case for anthocyanin consumption to promote human health: a review. Comp Rev Food Sci Food Safety 12: 483–508.
- Pourrat H, Bastide P, Dorier P and Tronche P, 1967. Préparation et activité thérapeutique de quelques glycosides d'anthocyanes. Chim Thérap 2: 33–38.
- Prior RL, Wu X. 2006. Anthocyanins: structural characteristics that result in unique metabolic patterns and biological activities. Free Radical Res 40(10): 1014–1028.
- Prior RL, Wu X, Gu L, Hager TJ, Hager A, Howard LR. 2008. Whole berries versus berry anthocyanins: Interactions with dietary fat levels in the C57BL/6J mouse model of obesity. J Agric Food Chem 56: 647–653.
- Prior RL, E Wilkes S, R Rogers T, Khanal RC, Wu X, Howard LR. 2010. Purified blueberry anthocyanins and blueberry juice alter development of obesity in mice fed an obesogenic high-fat diet. J Agric Food Chem 58(7): 3970–3976.
- Ramirez MR, Izquierdo I, do Carmo Bassols Raseira M, Zuanazzi JA, Barros D, Henriques AT. 2005. Effect of lyophilised Vaccinium berries on memory, anxiety and locomotion in adult rats. Pharmacol Res 52(6): 457–462.
- Rendeiro C, Guerreiro JDT, Williams CM, Spencer JPE. 2012. Flavonoids as modulators of memory and learning: molecular interactions resulting in behavioural effects. Proc Nutr Soc 71(2): 246–262.
- Renis M, Calandra L, Scifo C, et al. 2008. Response of cell cycle/stress-related protein expression and DNA damage upon treatment of CaCo2 cells with anthocyanins. Br J Nutr 100(1): 27–35.
- Rissanen TH, Voutilainen S, Virtanen JK, et al. 2003. Low intake of fruits, berries and vegetables is associated with excess mortality in men: the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor (KIHD) study. J Nutr 133(1): 199–204.
- Rodríguez-Fragoso L, Martínez-Arismendi JL, Orozco-Bustos D, Reyes-Esparza J, Torres E, Burchiel SW. 2011. Potential risks resulting from fruit/vegetable–drug interactions: effects on drug-metabolizing enzymes and drug transporters. J Food Sci 76(4): 112–124.
- Rossi A, Serraino I, Dugo P, et al. 2003. Protective effects of anthocyanins from blackberry in a rat model of acute lung inflammation. Free Radical Res 37: 891–900.
- Rossi M, Garavello W, Talamini R, et al. 2007. Flavonoids and the risk of oral and pharyngeal cancer: a case-control study from Italy. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 16: 1621–1625.
- Roy M, Sen S, Chakraborti AS. 2008. Action of pelargonidin on hyperglycemia and oxidative damage in diabetic rats: implication for glycation-induced hemoglobin modification. Life Sci 82(21–22): 1102–1110.
- Russo A, La Fauci L, Acquaviva R, et al. 2005. Ochratoxin A-induced DNA damage in human fibroblast: protective effect of cyanidin 3-O-beta-d-glucoside. J Nutr Biochem 16(1): 31–37.
- Sand PG, Dreiseitel A, Stang M, et al. 2010. Cytochrome P450 2C19 inhibitory activity of common berry constituents. Phytother Res 24(2): 304–307.
- Sasaki R, Nishimura N, Hoshino H, et al. 2007. Cyanidin 3-glucoside ameliorates hyperglycemia and insulin sensitivity due to downregulation of retinol binding protein 4 expression in diabetic mice. Biochem Pharmacol 74(11): 1619–1627.
- Scarabelli TM, Mariotto S, Abdel-Azeim S, et al. 2009. Targeting STAT1 by myricetin and delphinidin provides efficient protection of the heart from ischemia/reperfusion-induced injury. FEBS Lett 583(3): 531–541.
- SCF. 1975. Reports of the Scientific Committee for Food (1st series), opinion expressed in 1975, 17–29.
- Seeram NP, Momin RA, Nair MG, Bourquin LD. 2001. Cyclooxygenase inhibitory and antioxidant cyanidin glycosides in cherries and berries. Phytomedicine 8: 362–369.
- Serban C, Sahebkar A, Ursoniu S, Andrica F, Banach M. 2015. Effect of sour tea (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) on arterial hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Hypertens 33(6): 1119–1127.
- Serraino I, Dugo L, Dugo P, et al. 2003. Protective effects of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside from blackberry extract against peroxynitrite-induced endothelial dysfunction and vascular failure. Life Sci 73(9): 1097–1114.
- Sesso HD, Gaziano JM, Jenkins DJ, Buring JE. 2007. Strawberry intake, lipids, C-reactive protein, and the risk of cardiovascular disease in women. J Am Coll Nutr 26: 303–310.
- Shih PH, Yeh CT, Yen GC. 2005. Effects of anthocyanidin on the inhibition of proliferation and induction of apoptosis in human gastric adenocarcinoma cells. Food Chem Toxicol 43(10): 1557–1566.
- Shih PH, Yeh CT, Yen GC. 2007. Anthocyanins induce the activation of phase II enzymes through the antioxidant response element pathway against oxidative stress-induced apoptosis. J Agric Food Chem 55(23): 9427–9435.
- Shukitt-Hale B, Kalt W, Carey AN, Vinqvist-Tymchuk M, McDonald J, Joseph JA. 2009. Plum juice, but not dried plum powder, is effective in mitigating cognitive deficits in aged rats. Nutr 25(5): 567–573.
- Shukitt-Hale B, Lau FC, Carey AN, et al. 2008. Blueberry polyphenols attenuate kainic acid-induced decrements in cognition and alter inflammatory gene expression in rat hippocampus. Nutr Neurosci 11(4): 172–182.
- Sin HP, Liu DT, Lam DS. 2013. Lifestyle modification, nutritional and vitamins supplements for age-related macular degeneration. Acta Ophthalmol 91(1): 6–11.
- Singletary KW, Stansbury MJ, Giusti M, Van Breemen RB, Wallig M, Rimando A. 2003. Inhibition of rat mammary tumorigenesis by concord grape juice constituents. J Agric Food Chem 51(25): 7280–7286.
- Singletary KW, Jung KJ, Giusti M. 2007. Anthocyanin-rich grape extract blocks breast cell DNA damage. J Med Food 10(2): 244–251.
- Smeriglio A, Monteleone D, Trombetta D. 2014. Health effects of Vaccinium myrtillus L.: evaluation of efficacy and technological strategies for preservation of active ingredients. Mini Rev Med Chem 14(7): 567–584.
- Sorrenti V, Mazza F, Campisi A, et al. 2007. Heme oxygenase induction by cyanidin-3-O-beta-glucoside in cultured human endothelial cells. Mol Nutr Food Res 51(5): 580–586.
- Spencer JP. 2010. The impact of fruit flavonoids on memory and cognition. Br J Nutr 104: S40–S47.
- Srivastava A, Akoh CC, Fischer J, Krewer G. 2007. Effect of anthocyanin fractions from selected cultivars of Georgia-grown blueberries on apoptosis and phase II enzymes. J Agric Food Chem 55(8): 3180–3185.
- Strandberg TE, Strandberg AY, Salomaa VV. 2007. Alcoholic beverage preference, 29-year mortality, and quality of life in men in old age. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 62(2): 213–218.
- Streppel MT, Ock'e MC, Boshuizen HC, Kok FJ, Kromhout D. 2009. Long-term wine consumption is independently of moderate alcohol 1 intake related to 2 cardiovascular mortality and life expectancy. The Zutphen Study J Epidemiol Community Health 63: 534–540.
- Takikawa M, Inoue S, Horio F. 2010. Dietary anthocyanin-rich bilberry extract ameliorates hyperglycemia and insulin sensitivity via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase in diabetic mice. J Nutr 140: 527–533.
- Talavéra S, Felgines C, Texier O, et al. 2005. Anthocyanin metabolism in rats and their distribution to digestive area, kidney, and brain. J Agric Food Chem 53(10): 3902–3908.
- Talavera S, Felgines C, Texier O, Besson C, Lamaison JL, Remesy C. 2003. Anthocyanins are efficiently absorbed from the stomach in anesthetized rats. J Nutr 133(12): 4178–4182.
- Talavéra S, Felgines C, Texier O, et al. 2004. Anthocyanins are efficiently absorbed from the small intestine in rats. J Nutr 134(9): 2275–2279.
- Tanaka Y. 2006. Flower colour and cytochromes P450. Phytochem Rev 5: 283–291.
- Tarozzi A, Marchesi A, Hrelia S, et al. 2005. Protective effects of cyanidin-3-O-beta-glucopyranoside against UVA-induced oxidative stress in human keratinocytes. Photochem Photobiol 81(3): 623–629.
- Thomasset S, Teller N, Cai H, et al. 2009. Do anthocyanins and anthocyanidins, cancer chemopreventive pigments in the diet, merit development as potential drugs? Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 64(1): 201–211.
- Tomaino A, Martorana M, Arcoraci T, Monteleone D, Giovinazzo C, Saija A. 2010. Antioxidant activity and phenolic profile of pistachio (Pistacia vera L., variety Bronte) seeds and skins. Biochimie 92(9): 1115–1122.
- Toufektsian M, Lorgeril MD, Nagy N. 2008. Chronic dietary intake of plant-derived anthocyanins protects the rat heart against ischemia-reperfusion injury. J Nutr 138: 747–752.
- Tsuda T, Horio F, Uchida K, Aoki H, Osawa T. 2003. Dietary cyanidin 3-O-β-D-glucoside-rich purple corn color prevents obesity and ameliorates hyperglycemia in mice. J Nutr 133(7): 2125–2130.
- Tsuda T, Shiga K, Ohshima K, Kawakishi S, Osawa T. 1996. Inhibition of lipid peroxidation and the active oxygen radical scavenging effect of anthocyanin pigments isolated from Phaseolus vulgaris L. Biochem Pharmacol 52: 1033–1039.
- Tsuda T, Ueno Y, Kojo H, Yoshikawa T, Osawa T. 2005. Gene expression profile of isolated rat adipocytes treated with anthocyanins. Arch Biochem Biophys 1733(2–3): 137–147.
- Tsuda T, Ueno Y, Yoshikawa T, Kojo H, Osawa T. 2006. Microarray profiling of gene expression in human adipocytes in response to anthocyanins. Biochem Pharm 71(8): 1184–1197.
- Tsuda T. 2008. Regulation of adipocyte function by anthocyanins; possibility of preventing the metabolic syndrome. J Agric Food Chem 56: 642–646.
- Tsuda T. 2012. Dietary anthocyanin-rich plants: biochemical basis and recent progress in health benefits studies. Mol Nutr Food Res 56(1): 159–170.
- Uesawa Y, Mohri K. 2006. Effects of cranberry juice on nifedipine pharmacokinetics in rats. J Pharm Pharmacol 58(8): 1067–1072.
- Ushijima K, Koshimizu T, Fujimura A. 2009a. The inhibitory effect of cranberry juice on phenytoin metabolism by human liver microsomes. Br J Clin Pharmacol 40(2): 59–64.
- Ushijima K, Tsuruoka S, Tsuda H, et al. 2009b. Cranberry juice suppressed the diclofenac metabolism by human liver microsomes, but not in healthy human subjects. Br J Clin Pharmacol 68(2): 194–200.
- Valenti L, Riso P, Mazzocchi A, Porrini M, Fargion S, Agostoni C. 2013. Dietary anthocyanins as nutritional therapy for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2013: 145421.
- Vanzo A, Vrhovsek U, Tramer F, Mattivi F, Passamonti S. 2011. Exceptionally fast uptake and metabolism of cyanidin 3-glucoside by rat kidneys and liver. J Natl Prod 74(5): 1049–1054.
- Vinson JA, Teufel K, Wu N. 2001. Red wine, dealcoholized red wine, and especially grape juice, inhibit atherosclerosis in a hamster model. Atherosclerosis 156: 67–72.
- Vitaglione P, Donnarumma G. 2007. Protocatechuic acid is the major human metabolite of cyanidin-glucosides. J Nutr 137: 2043–2048.
- Vlachojannis C, Zimmermann BF, Chrubasik-Hausmann S. 2015a. Efficacy and safety of pomegranate medicinal products for cancer. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2015: 258598.
- Vlachojannis C, Zimmermann BF, Chrubasik-Hausmann S. 2015b. Quantification of anthocyanins in elderberry and chokeberry dietary supplements. Phytother Res 29(4): 561–565.
- Wallace TC. 2011. Anthocyanins in cardiovascular disease. Adv Nutr 2: 1–7.
- Wallace TC, Slavin M, Frankenfeld CL. 2016. Systematic review of anthocyanins and markers of cardiovascular disease. Nutrients 8(1): 32–45.
- Walton MC, McGhie TK, Reynolds GW, Hendriks WH. 2006. The flavonol quercetin-3-glucoside inhibits cyanidin-3-glucoside absorption in vitro. J Agric Food Chem 54(13): 4913–4920.
- Wang D, Zou T, Yang Y, Yan X, Ling W. 2011. Cyanidin-3-O-β-glucoside with the aid of its metabolite protocatechuic acid, reduces monocyte infiltration in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Biochem Pharmacol 82(7): 713–719.
- Wang H, Cao G, Prior RL. 1997. Oxygen radical absorbing capacity of anthocyanins. J Agric Food Chem 45(2): 304–309.
- Wang LS, Stoner GD. 2008a. Anthocyanins and their role in cancer prevention. Cancer Lett 269(2): 281–290.
- Wang LS, Stoner GD. 2008b. Anthocyanins and their role in cancer prevention. Cancer Lett 269(2): 281–290.
- Wang X, Ouyang YY, Liu J, Zhao G. 2014. Flavonoid intake and risk of CVD: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Br J Nutr 111(1): 1–11.
- Waterhouse AL. 2002. Wine phenolics. Ann NY Acad Sci 957: 21–36.
- Weisel T, Baum M, Eisenbrand G. 2006. An anthocyanin/polyphenolic-rich fruit juice reduces oxidative DNA damage and increases glutathione level in healthy proband. Biotechnol J 1(4): 388–397.
- Werlein HD, Kütemeyer C, Schatton G, Hubbermann EM, Schwarz K. 2005. Influence of elderberry and blackcurrant concentrates on the growth of microorganisms. Food Control 168(8): 729–733.
- Williamson G, Seis H, Heber D, et al. 2009. Functional foods for health promotion: state-of-the-science on dietary flavonoids. Nutr Rev 67: 736–743.
- Woodward G, Kroon P, Cassidy A, Kay C. 2009. Anthocyanin stability and recovery: implications for the analysis of clinical and experimental samples. J Agric Food Chem 57(12): 5271–5278.
- Wrolstad RE, Durst RW, Lee J. 2005. Tracking color and pigment changes in anthocyanin products. Trends Food Sci Tech 16(9): 423–428.
- Wu VCH, Qiu X, Bushway A, Harper L. 2008. Antibacterial effects of American cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) concentrate on foodborne pathogens. Food Sci Technol 41(10): 1834–1841.
- Wu X, Beecher GR, Holden JM, Haytowitz DB, Gebhardt SE, Prior RL. 2006. Concentrations of anthocyanins in common foods in the United States and estimation of normal consumption. J Agric Food Chem 54(11): 4069–4075.
- Wu X, Cao G, Prior RL. 2002. Absorption and metabolism of anthocyanins in elderly women after consumption of elderberry or blueberry. J Nutr 132(7): 1865–1871.
- Wu X, Pittman HE, Prior RL. 2004. Pelargonidin is absorbed and metabolized differently than cyanidin after marionberry consumption in pigs. J Nutr 134(10): 2603–2610.
- www.clinicaltrials.gov (May 2016).
- Xu C, Li Ch YT, Kong ANT. 2005. Induction of phase I, II and III drug metabolism/transport by xenobiotics. Arch Pharm Res 28(3): 249–268.
- Xu JW, Ikeda K, Yamori Y. 2004a. Upregulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase by cyanidin-3-glucoside, a typical anthocyanin pigment. Hypertension 44(2): 217–22.
- Xu JW, Ikeda K, Yamori Y. 2004b. Cyanidin-3-glucoside regulates phosphorylation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. FEBS Lett 574(1–3): 176–180.
- Yamanouchi J, Nishida E, Itagaki S, Kawamura S, Doi K, Yoshikawa Y. 2000. Aortic atheromatous lesions developed in APA hamsters with streptozotocin induced diabetes: a new animal model for diabetic atherosclerosis. 1. Histopathological studies. Exp Anim 49(4): 259–266.
- Yan X, Murphy BT, Hammond GB, Vinson JA, Neto CC. 2002. Antioxidant activities and antitumor screening of extracts from cranberry fruit (Vaccinium macrocarpon). J Agric Food Chem 50(21): 5844–5849.
- Yang M, Koo SI, Song WO, Chun OK. 2011. Food matrix affecting anthocyanin bioavailability: review. Curr Med Chem 18(2): 291–300.
- Yi W, Fischer J, Krewer G, Akoh CC. 2005. Phenolic compounds from blueberries can inhibit colon cancer cell proliferation and induce apoptosis. J Agric Food Chem 53: 7320–7329.
- Yoshimoto M, Okuno S, Yamaguchi M, Yamakawa O. 2001. Antimutagenicity of deacylated anthocyanins in purple-fleshed sweetpotato. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 65(7): 1652–1655.
- Youdim KA, Martin A, Joseph JA. 2000a. Incorporation of the elderberry anthocyanins by endothelial cells increases protection against oxidative stress. Free Radic Biol Med 29: 51–60.
- Youdim KA, Shukitt-Hale B, Martin A, et al. 2000b. Short-term dietary supplementation of blueberry polyphenolics: beneficial effects on aging brain performance and peripheral tissue function. Nutr Neurosci 3: 383–397.
- Zadok D, Levy Y, Glovinsky Y. 1999. The effect of anthocyanosides in a multiple oral dose on night vision. Eye Dec 13: 734–736.
- Zafra-Stone S, Yasmin T, Bagchi M, Chatterjee A, Vinson JA, Bagchi D. 2007. Berry anthocyanins as novel antioxidants in human health and disease prevention. Mol Nutr Food Res 51(6): 675–683.
- Zamora-Ros R, Knaze V, Luj'an-Barroso L, et al. 2011a. Estimated dietary intakes of flavonols, flavanones and flavones in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) 24-hour dietary recall cohort. Br J Nutr 106(12): 1915–1925.
- Zamora-Ros R, Knaze V, Luján-Barroso L, et al. 2011b. Estimation of the intake of anthocyanidins and their food sources in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study. Br J Nutr 106(7): 1090–1099.
- Zhang H, Wang L, Deroles S, Bennett R, Davies K. 2006. New insight into the structures and formation of anthocyanic vacuolar inclusions in flower petals. BMC Plant Biol 6: 29.
- Zhang Y, Seeram NP, Lee R, Feng L, Heber D. 2008. Isolation and identification of strawberry phenolics with antioxidant and human cancer cell antiproliferative properties. J Agric Food Chem 56: 670–675.
- Zhao C, Giusti MM, Malik M, Moyer MP, Magnuson BA. 2004. Effects of commercial anthocyanin-rich extracts on colonic cancer and nontumorigenic colonic cell growth. J Agric Food Chem 52: 6122–6128.
- Ziberna L, Tramer F, Moze S, Vrhovsek U, Mattivi F, Passamonti S. 2012. Transport and bioactivity of cyanidin 3-glucoside into the vascular endothelium. Free Radic Biol Med 52(9): 1750–1759.
