Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Do racial patterns in psychological distress shed light on the Black–White depression paradox? A systematic review

  • Review
  • Published:
Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

Major epidemiologic studies in the US reveal a consistent “paradox” by which psychiatric outcomes such as major depressive disorder (MDD) are less prevalent among Blacks relative to Whites, despite greater exposure to social and economic stressors and worse physical health outcomes. A second paradox, which has received less attention and has never been systematically documented, is the discrepancy between these patterns and Black–White comparisons in psychological distress, which reveal consistently higher levels among Blacks. By systematically documenting the latter paradox, this paper seeks to inform efforts to explain the first paradox.

Methods

We conduct a systematic review of the literature estimating the prevalence of MDD and levels of psychological distress in Blacks and Whites in the US.

Results

The literature review yielded 34 articles reporting 54 relevant outcomes overall. Blacks have a lower prevalence of MDD in 8 of the 9 comparisons observed. In contrast, Blacks have higher levels of psychological distress (in terms of “high distress” and mean scores) than Whites in 42 of the 45 comparisons observed. Tests of statistical significance, where available, confirm this discrepant pattern.

Conclusions

A systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence supports the existence of a “double paradox” by which Blacks’ lower prevalence of MDD relative to Whites’ is inconsistent with both the expectations of social stress theory and with the empirical evidence regarding psychological distress. Efforts to resolve the Black–White depression paradox should account for the discordant distress results, which seem to favor artifactual explanations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Dressler WW, Oths KS, Gravlee CC (2005) Race and ethnicity in public health research: models to explain health disparities. Annu Rev Anthr 34:231–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Horwitz AV (2002) Outcomes in the sociology of mental health: where have we been and where are we going? J Health Soc Behav 43:143–151

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Pearlin LI, Meneghan EG, Lieberman MA, Mullan JT (1981) The stress process. J Health Soc Behav 22:337–356

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Schwartz S, Meyer IH (2010) Mental health disparities research: the impact of within and between group analyses on tests of social stress hypotheses. Soc Sci Med 70:1111–1118

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Turner RJ (2010) Health disparities and the stress hypothesis: a commentary on Schwartz and Meyer. Soc Sci Med 70:1119–1120

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Muntaner C, Ng E, Vanroelen C et al (2013) Social stratification, social closure, and social class as determinants of mental health disparities. In: Aneshensel CS, Phelan JC, Bierman A (eds) The Sociology of Mental Health. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 205–227

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  7. Williams DR, Yu Y, Jackson JS, Anderson NB (1997) Racial differences in physical and mental health, socio-economic status, stress and discrimination. J Health Psychol 2:335–351

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Conley D (1999) Being black, living in the red: race, wealth, and social policy in America. University of California Press, Berkeley

    Google Scholar 

  9. Wilson WJ (2009) More than just race: being black and poor in the inner city. W.W. Norton & Company, New York

    Google Scholar 

  10. Platt JR (1964) Strong inference. Science 146:347–353

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Kessler RC, Ormel J, Demler O, Stang PE (2003) Comorbid mental disorders account for the role impairment of commonly occurring chronic physical disorders: results from the National Comorbidity Survey. J Occup Environ Med 45:1257–1266. doi:10.1097/01.jom.0000100000.70011.bb

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Scott KM, Bruffaerts R, Tsang A et al (2007) Depression–anxiety relationships with chronic physical conditions: results from the World Mental Health surveys. J Affect Disord 103:113–120. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2007.01.015

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Lincoln KD, Taylor RJ, Watkins DC, Chatters LM (2010) Correlates of psychological distress and major depressive disorder among African American men. Res Soc Work Pract 21:278–288. doi:10.1177/1049731510386122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Neighbors HW, Njai R, Jackson JS (2007) Race, ethnicity, John Henryism, and depressive symptoms: the national survey of American life adult reinterview. Res Hum Dev 4:71–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Sue S, Chu JY (2003) The mental health of ethnic minority groups: challenges posed by the supplement to the Surgeon General’s report on mental health. Cult Med Psychiatry 27:447–465

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Mouzon DM (2010) Can social relationships explain the race paradox in mental health?. Rutgers University, Graduate School, New Brunswick

    Google Scholar 

  17. Kiecolt K, Hughes M, Keith VM (2008) Race, social relationships, and mental health. Pers Relatsh 15:229–245

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Jackson JS, Knight KM, Rafferty JA (2010) Race and unhealthy behaviors: chronic stress, the HPA axis, and physical and mental health disparities over the life course. Am J Public Health 100:933–939

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Breslau J, Javaras KN, Blacker D et al (2008) Differential item functioning between ethnic groups in the epidemiological assessment of depression. J Nerv Ment Dis 196:297–306

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Uebelacker LA, Strong D, Weinstock LM, Miller IW (2008) Use of item response theory to understand differential functioning of DSM-IV major depression symptoms by race, ethnicity and gender. Psychol Med 39:591. doi:10.1017/S0033291708003875

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Link B, Dohrenwend BP (1980) Formulation of hypotheses about the true prevalence of demoralization. In: Dohrenwend BP, Dohrenwend BS, Gould MS, Link B, Neugebauer R, Wunsch-Hitzig R (eds) Mental illness in the United States: epidemiological estimates. Praeger Publishers, New York, pp 114–132

    Google Scholar 

  22. Blazer DG (2008) Epidemiology of psychiatric illness. In: Fatemi SH, Clayton PJ (eds) The medical basis of psychiatry. Springer, New York, pp 547–559

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  23. Rosenfield S, Smith D (2009) Gender and mental health: do men and women have different amounts or types of problems? In: Horwitz AV, Scheid TL (eds) Handbook for the study of mental health: social contexts, theories, and systems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 256–267

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  24. Centers for Disease and Control and Prevention (2004) Self-reported frequent mental distress among adults—United States, 1993–2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 53(41):963–966

    Google Scholar 

  25. Kessler RC, Neighbors HW (1986) A new perspective on the relationships among race, social class, and psychological distress. J Health Soc Behav 27:107–115

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Mehta K, Kramer H, Durazo-Arvizu R et al (2015) Depression in the US population during the time periods surrounding the Great Recession. J Clin Psychiatry 76:e499–e504

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Coyne JC (1994) Self-reported distress: analog or ersatz depression? Psychol Bull 116:29–45

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Horwitz AV, Wakefield JC (2007) The loss of sadness: how psychiatry transformed normal sorrow into depressive disorder. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  29. Conway CC, Hammen C, Brennan PA et al (2010) Interaction of chronic stress with serotonin transporter and catechol-O-methyltransferase polymorphisms in predicting youth depression. Depress Anxiety. doi:10.1002/da.20715

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Ressler KJ, Bradley B, Mercer KB et al (2009) Polymorphisms in CRHR1 and the serotonin transporter loci: gene × gene × environment interactions on depressive symptoms. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.31052

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Dodge KA, Rutter M (2011) Gene-environment interactions in developmental psychopathology. Guilford Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  32. Kilpatrick DG, Koenen KC, Ruggiero KJ et al (2007) The serotonin transporter genotype and social support and moderation of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression in hurricane-exposed adults. Am J Psychiatry 164:1693–1699

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Schnittker J (2012) The proximity of common unhappiness and misery. Soc Ment Health 2:135–153. doi:10.1177/2156869312451153

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Kessler RC, Andrews G, Colpe LJ et al (2002) Short screening scales to monitor population prevalences and trends in non-specific pscyhological distress. Psychol Med 32:959–976

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Dohrenwend BP, Shrout PE, Egri G, Mendelsohn FS (1980) Nonspecific psychological distress and other dimensions of psychopathology: measures for use in the general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry 37:1229

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Andrews G, Slade T (2001) Interpreting scores on the Kessler psychological distress scale (K10). Aust N Z J Public Health 25:494–497

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Fechner-Bates S, Coyne JC, Schwenk TL (1994) The relationship of self-reported distress to depressive disorders and other psychopathology. J Consult Clin Psychol 62:550

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB (2001) The PHQ-9. J Gen Intern Med 16:606–613

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Brown TN (2003) Critical race theory speaks to the sociology of mental health: mental health problems produced by racial stratification. J Health Soc Behav 44:292–301

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Earl T, Williams D, Anglade S (2011) An update on the mental health of black americans: puzzling dilemmas and needed research. J Black Psychol 37:485–498. doi:10.1177/0095798410396077

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Mezuk B, Abdou CM, Hudson D et al (2013) “White Box” epidemiology and the social neuroscience of health behaviors: the environmental affordances model. Soc Ment Health 3:79–95. doi:10.1177/2156869313480892

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Somervell PD, Leaf PJ, Weissman MM et al (1989) The prevalence of major depression in black and white adults in five United States communities. Am J Epidemiol 130:725–735

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Vega WA, Rumbaut RG (1991) Ethnic minorities and mental health. Annu Rev Sociol 17:351–383

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Takayanagi Y, Spira AP, Roth KB et al (2014) Accuracy of reports of lifetime mental and physical disorders: results from the baltimore epidemiological catchment area study. JAMA Psychiatry 71:273. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.3579

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Thompson R, Bogner HR, Coyne JC et al (2004) Personal characteristics associated with consistency of recall of depressed or anhedonic mood in the 13-year follow-up of the Baltimore Epidemiologic Catchment Area Survey. Acta Psychiatr Scand 109:345–354

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Aneshensel CS, Estrada AL, Hansell MJ, Clark VA (1987) Social psychological aspects of reporting behavior: lifetime depressive episode reports. J Health Soc Behav 28:232–246

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Dohrenwend BP (2000) The role of adversity and stress in psychopathology: some evidence and its implications for theory and research. J Health Soc Behav 41:1–19

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Monroe SM, Slavich GM, Georgiades K (2009) The social environment and life stress in depression. In: Gotlib IH, Hammen CL (eds) Handbook of depression. The Guilford Press, New York, pp 340–360

    Google Scholar 

  49. Shrout PE, Link BG, Dohrenwend BP et al (1989) Characterizing life events as risk factors for depression: the role of fateful loss events. J Abnorm Psychol 98:460

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Turner RJ, Lloyd DA (2004) Stress burden and the lifetime incidence of psychiatric disorder in young adults: racial and ethnic contrasts. Arch Gen Psychiatry 61:481

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Kroenke K, Strine TW, Spitzer RL et al (2009) The PHQ-8 as a measure of current depression in the general population. J Affect Disord 114:163–173. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2008.06.026

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Blazer DG, Kessler RC (1994) The prevalence and distribution of major depression in a national community sample: the National Comorbidity Survey. Age Years 15:24–27

    Google Scholar 

  53. Breslau J, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Kendler KS et al (2005) Specifying race-ethnic differences in risk for psychiatric disorder in a USA national sample. Psychol Med 36:57. doi:10.1017/S0033291705006161

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Compton W, Conway K, Stinson F, Grant B (2006) Changes in the prevalence of major depression and comorbid substance use disorders in the United States between 1991–1992 and 2001–2002. Am J Psychiatry 163:2141–2147

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Hasin DS, Goodwin RD, Stinson FS, Grant BF (2005) Epidemiology of major depressive disorder: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcoholism and Related Conditions. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62:1097–1106

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Regier DA, Farmer ME, Rae DS et al (1993) One-month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States and sociodemographic characteristics: the epidemiologic catchment area study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 88:35–47

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Weissman MM, Bruce ML, Leaf PJ et al (1991) Affective disorders. In: Robbins L, Regier DA (eds) Psychiatric disorders in America. Simon and Schuster, New York, pp 53–80

    Google Scholar 

  58. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2001) Mental health: culture, race, and ethnicity—a supplement to mental health: a report of the surgeon general. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health Services, Rockville, MD

  59. Bratter JL, Eschbach K (2005) Race/ethnic differences in nonspecific psychological distress: evidence from the national health interview survey*. Soc Sci Q 86:620–644

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Centers for Disease and Control and Prevention (2010) Current depression among adults—United States, 2006 and 2008. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 59:1229–1235

    Google Scholar 

  61. Chowdhury PP, Balluz L, Strine TW (2008) Health-related quality of life among minority populations in the United States, BRFSS 2001–2002. Ethn Dis 18:483–487

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Dey AN, Lucas JW (2006) Physical and mental health characteristics of US-and foreign-born adults, United States, 1998–2003. Adv Data Vital Health Stat CDC 369:1–20

    Google Scholar 

  63. Eaton W, Kessler LG (1981) Rates of symptoms of depression in a national sample. Am J Epidemiol 114:528–538

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Fiscella K, Franks P (1997) Does psychological distress contribute to racial and socio-economic disparities in mortality? Soc Sci Med 45:1805–1809

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Fleischman JA (2007) Measurement equivalence for three mental health status measures. Department of Health and Human Services, Peachtree City, pp 55–62

    Google Scholar 

  66. Harris KM, Edlund MJ, Larson S (2005) Racial and ethnic differences in the mental health problems and use of mental health care. Med Care 43:775–784

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Jones-Webb RJ, Snowden LR (1993) Symptoms of depression among Blacks and Whites. Am J Public Health 83:240–244

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Kiviniemi MT, Orom H, Giovino GA (2011) Psychological distress and smoking behavior: the nature of the relation differs by race/ethnicity. Nicotine Tob Res 13:113–119. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntq218

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Mellinger GD, Balter MB, Manheimer DI et al (1978) Psychic distress, life crisis, and use of psychotherapeutic medications: national household survey data. Arch Gen Psychiatry 35:1045–1052

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Mukherjee S (2013) Comparing adult males and females in the United States to examine the association between body mass index and frequent mental distress: an analysis of data from BRFSS 2011. Psychiatry J 2013:1–11. doi:10.1155/2013/230928

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Mulia N, Ye Y, Zemore SE, Greenfield TK (2008) Social disadvantage, stress, and alcohol use among black, Hispanic, and white Americans: findings from the 2005 US National Alcohol Survey. J Stud Alcohol Drugs 69:824

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Nuru-Jeter A, Williams CT, LaVeist TA (2008) A methodological note on modeling the effects of race: the case of psychological distress. Stress Health 24:337–350. doi:10.1002/smi.1215

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Oraka E (2010) Asthma and serious psychological distress: prevalence and risk factors among US Adults, 2001–2007. Chest J 137:609. doi:10.1378/chest.09-1777

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Pratt LA (2009) Serious psychological distress, as measured by the K6, and mortality. Ann Epidemiol 19:202–209. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2008.12.005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Reeves WC, Strine TW, Pratt LA et al (2011) Mental illness surveillance among adults in the United States. MMWR Suppl 60:1–29

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Roxburgh S (2009) Untangling inequalities: gender, race, and socioeconomic differences in depression. Sociol Forum 24:357–381. doi:10.1111/j.1573-7861.2009.01103.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Wu L-T, Anthony JC (2000) The estimated rate of depressed mood in US adults: recent evidence for a peak in later life. J Affect Disord 60:159–171

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Zahran HS, Kobau R, Moriarty DG et al (2005) Health-related quality of life surveillance—United States, 1993–2002. MMWR Surveill Summ 54:1–35

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Arias D, Becerra BJ, Becerra MB (2015) Racial and ethnic differences in asthma and mental health among US adults: results from the national survey on drug use and health. J Asthma 52:715–720. doi:10.3109/02770903.2015.1005843

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Li C-M, Zhang X, Hoffman HJ et al (2014) Hearing impairment associated with depression in US adults, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005–2010. JAMA Otolaryngol Neck Surg 140:293. doi:10.1001/jamaoto.2014.42

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Case SM, Stewart JC (2014) Race/ethnicity moderates the relationship between depressive symptom severity and C-reactive protein: 2005–2010 NHANES data. Brain Behav Immun 41:101–108. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2014.04.004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Breslau J, Kendler KS, Su M et al (2005) Lifetime risk and persistence of psychiatric disorders across ethnic groups in the United States. Psychol Med 35:317–327

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Williams DR, Gonzalez HM, Neighbors H et al (2007) Prevalence and distribution of major depressive disorder in African Americans, Caribbean blacks, and non-Hispanic whites: results from the National Survey of American Life. Arch Gen Psychiatry 64:305

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Wang PS, Lane M, Olfson M et al (2005) Twelve-month use of mental health services in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62:629–640

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Wang PS, Berglund P, Olfson M et al (2005) Failure and delay in initial treatment contact after first onset of mental disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62:603–613

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Keyes CLM (2009) The black–white paradox in health: flourishing in the face of social inequality and discrimination. J Pers 77:1677–1706

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Mays VM, Cochran SD, Ponce NA (2004) Thinking about race and ethnicity in population-based studies of health. In: Beech BM, Goodman M (eds) Race and research: perspectives on minority participation in health studies. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, pp 79–100

    Google Scholar 

  88. Williams DR, Harris-Reid M (1999) Race and mental health: emerging patterns and promising approaches. In: Horwitz AV, Scheid TL (eds) Handbook for the study of mental health: social contexts, theories, and systems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 295–314

    Google Scholar 

  89. Barnes DM, Keyes KM, Bates LM (2013) Racial differences in depression in the United States: how do subgroup analyses inform a paradox? Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 48:1941–1949. doi:10.1007/s00127-013-0718-7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Alegria M, McGuire T (2003) Rethinking a universal framework in the psychiatric symptom-disorder relationship. J Health Soc Behav 44:257–274

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Breslau J, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Kendler KS et al (2006) Specifying race-ethnic differences in risk for psychiatric disorder in a US national sample. Psychol Med 36:57–68

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Mezuk B, Rafferty JA, Kershaw KN et al (2010) Reconsidering the role of social disadvantage in physical and mental health: stressful life events, health behaviors, race, and depression. Am J Epidemiol 172:1238–1249

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  93. Keyes KM, Barnes DM, Bates LM (2011) Stress, coping, and depression: testing a new hypothesis in a prospectively studied general population sample of U.S.-born whites and blacks. Soc Sci Med 72:650–659

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Courtenay WH (2000) Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s well-being: a theory of gender and health. Soc Sci Med 50:1385–1401

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Phelan JC, Link BG, Tehranifar P (2010) Social conditions as fundamental causes of health inequalities: theory, evidence, and policy implications. J Health Soc Behav 51:S28–S40. doi:10.1177/0022146510383498

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Cadoret RJ, Wilson D (1983) Somatization among depressed patients in industrialized nations. Am J Psychiatry 140:1103–1104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Carragher N, Adamson G, Bunting B, McCann S (2009) Subtypes of depression in a nationally representative sample. J Affect Disord 113:88–99. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2008.05.015

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Kirmayer LJ, Robbins JM, Dworkind M, Yaffe MJ (1993) Somatization and the recognition of depression and anxiety in primary care. Am J Pyschiatry 150:734–741

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Lehmann HE (1959) Psychiatric concepts of depression: nomenclature and classification. Can Psychiatr Assoc J 4:1–12

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Simon GE, VonKorff M, Piccinelli M et al (1999) An international study of the relation between somatic symptoms and depression. N Engl J Med 341:1329–1335

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Ayalon L, Young MA (2003) A comparison of depressive symptoms in African Americans And Caucasian Americans. J Cross-Cult Psychol 34:111–124. doi:10.1177/0022022102239158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Baker FM (2001) Diagnosing depression in African Americans. Commun Ment Health J 37:31–38

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Carter JH (1974) Recognizing psychiatric symptoms in black Americans. Geriatrics 29:95–99

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Das AK, Olfson M, McCurtis HL, Weissman MM (2006) Depression in African Americans: breaking barriers to detection and treatment. J Fam Pract 55:30

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Fabrega H Jr, Mezzich J, Ulrich RF (1988) Black–White differences in psychopathology in an urban psychiatric population. Compr Psychiatry 29:285–297

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Williams DR, Mohammed SA (2008) Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research. J Behav Med 32:20–47. doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  107. Hasin DS, Stinson FS, Ogburn E, Grant BF (2007) Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry 64(7):830–842

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Sharon Schwartz for her helpful comments on this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 39 Broadway, Suite 530, New York, NY, 10006, USA

    David M. Barnes

  2. Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, 722 West 168th Street, New York, NY, 10032, USA

    Lisa M. Bates

Authors
  1. David M. Barnes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lisa M. Bates
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David M. Barnes.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Barnes, D.M., Bates, L.M. Do racial patterns in psychological distress shed light on the Black–White depression paradox? A systematic review. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 52, 913–928 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1394-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1394-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation