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Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Germany
Institute of Healthy Ageing, Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK
INSERM, U848, Villejuif, France
Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France
Pôle de Biologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, AP-HP, Paris, France
Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
Aging is characterized by a progressive loss of physiological integrity, leading to impaired function and increased vulnerability to death. This deterioration is the primary risk factor for major human pathologies, including cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. Aging research has experienced an unprecedented advance over recent years, particularly with the discovery that the rate of aging is controlled, at least to some extent, by genetic pathways and biochemical processes conserved in evolution. This Review enumerates nine tentative hallmarks that represent common denominators of aging in different organisms, with special emphasis on mammalian aging. These hallmarks are: genomic instability, telomere attrition, epigenetic alterations, loss of proteostasis, deregulated nutrient sensing, mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, stem cell exhaustion, and altered intercellular communication. A major challenge is to dissect the interconnectedness between the candidate hallmarks and their relative contributions to aging, with the final goal of identifying pharmaceutical targets to improve human health during aging, with minimal side effects.
Main Text
Introduction
Aging, which we broadly define as the time-dependent functional decline that affects most living organisms, has attracted curiosity and excited imagination throughout the history of humankind. However, it has only been 30 years since a new era in aging research was inaugurated following the isolation of the first long-lived strains in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) (
). Nowadays, aging is subjected to scientific scrutiny based on the ever-expanding knowledge of the molecular and cellular bases of life and disease. The current situation of aging research exhibits many parallels with that of cancer research in previous decades. The cancer field gained major momentum in 2000, with the publication of a landmark paper that enumerated six hallmarks of cancer (
). This categorization has helped to conceptualize the essence of cancer and its underlying mechanisms.
At first sight, cancer and aging may seem to be opposite processes: cancer is the consequence of an aberrant gain of cellular fitness, whereas aging is characterized by a loss of fitness. At a deeper level, however, cancer and aging share common origins. The time-dependent accumulation of cellular damage is widely considered to be the general cause of aging (
). Concomitantly, cellular damage may occasionally provide aberrant advantages to certain cells, which can eventually produce cancer. Therefore, cancer and aging can be regarded as two different manifestations of the same underlying process—namely, the accumulation of cellular damage. In addition, several of the pathologies associated with aging, such as atherosclerosis and inflammation, involve uncontrolled cellular overgrowth or hyperactivity (
). Based on this conceptual framework, several critical questions have arisen in the field of aging regarding the physiological sources of aging-causing damage, the compensatory responses that try to re-establish homeostasis, the interconnection between the different types of damage and compensatory responses, and the possibilities to intervene exogenously to delay aging.
Here, we have attempted to identify and categorize the cellular and molecular hallmarks of aging. We propose nine candidate hallmarks that are generally considered to contribute to the aging process and together determine the aging phenotype (Figure 1). Given the complexity of the issue, we have emphasized current understanding of mammalian aging while recognizing pioneer insights from simpler model organisms (
). Each hallmark should ideally fulfill the following criteria: (1) it should manifest during normal aging; (2) its experimental aggravation should accelerate aging; and (3) its experimental amelioration should retard the normal aging process and hence increase healthy lifespan. This set of ideal requisites is met to varying degrees by the proposed hallmarks, an aspect that will be discussed in detail for each of them. The last criterion is the most difficult to achieve, even if restricted to just one aspect of aging. For this reason, not all of the hallmarks are fully supported yet by interventions that succeed in ameliorating aging. This caveat is tempered by the extensive interconnectedness between the aging hallmarks, implying that experimental amelioration of one particular hallmark may impinge on others.
The scheme enumerates the nine hallmarks described in this Review: genomic instability, telomere attrition, epigenetic alterations, loss of proteostasis, deregulated nutrient sensing, mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, stem cell exhaustion, and altered intercellular communication.
) (Figure 2A). Moreover, numerous premature aging diseases, such as Werner syndrome and Bloom syndrome, are the consequence of increased DNA damage accumulation (
), though the relevance of these and other progeroid syndromes to normal aging remains unresolved due, in part, to the fact that they recapitulate only some aspects of aging. The integrity and stability of DNA are continuously challenged by exogenous physical, chemical, and biological agents, as well as by endogenous threats, including DNA replication errors, spontaneous hydrolytic reactions, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) (
). The genetic lesions arising from extrinsic or intrinsic damages are highly diverse and include point mutations, translocations, chromosomal gains and losses, telomere shortening, and gene disruption caused by the integration of viruses or transposons. To minimize these lesions, organisms have evolved a complex network of DNA repair mechanisms that are collectively capable of dealing with most of the damages inflicted to nuclear DNA (
). The genomic stability systems also include specific mechanisms for maintaining the appropriate length and functionality of telomeres (which are the topic of a separate hallmark; see below) and for ensuring the integrity of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) (
). In addition to these direct lesions in the DNA, defects in the nuclear architecture, known as laminopathies, can cause genome instability and result in premature aging syndromes (
(A) Genomic instability and telomere attrition. Endogenous or exogenous agents can stimulate a variety of DNA lesions that are schematically represented on one single chromosome. Such lesions can be repaired by a variety of mechanisms. Excessive DNA damage or insufficient DNA repair favors the aging process. Note that both nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA (not represented here) are subjected to age-associated genomic alterations. BER, base excision repair; HR, homologous recombination; NER, nucleotide excision repair; NHEJ, nonhomologous end-joining; MMR, mismatch repair; ROS, reactive oxygen species; TLS, translesion synthesis; SAC, spindle assembly checkpoint (
(B) Epigenetic alterations. Alterations in the methylation of DNA or acetylation and methylation of histones, as well as of other chromatin-associated proteins, can induce epigenetic changes that contribute to the aging process.
). All of these forms of DNA alterations may affect essential genes and transcriptional pathways, resulting in dysfunctional cells that, if not eliminated by apoptosis or senescence, may jeopardize tissue and organismal homeostasis. This is especially relevant when DNA damage impacts the functional competence of stem cells, thus compromising their role in tissue renewal (
Causal evidence for the proposed links between lifelong increase in genomic damage and aging has arisen from studies in mice and humans, showing that deficiencies in DNA repair mechanisms cause accelerated aging in mice and underlie several human progeroid syndromes, such as Werner syndrome, Bloom syndrome, xeroderma pigmentosum, trichothiodystrophy, Cockayne syndrome, and Seckel syndrome (
). Moreover, transgenic mice overexpressing BubR1, a mitotic checkpoint component that ensures accurate segregation of chromosomes, exhibit an increased protection against aneuploidy and cancer, as well as extended healthy lifespan (
). mtDNA has been considered a major target for aging-associated somatic mutations due to the oxidative microenvironment of the mitochondria, the lack of protective histones in the mtDNA, and the limited efficiency of the mtDNA repair mechanisms compared to those of nuclear DNA (
). The causal implication of mtDNA mutations in aging has been controversial because of the multiplicity of mitochondrial genomes, which allows for the coexistence of mutant and wild-type genomes within the same cell, a phenomenon that is referred to as “heteroplasmy.” However, single-cell analyses have revealed that, despite the low overall level of mtDNA mutations, the mutational load of individual aging cells becomes significant and may attain a state of homoplasmy in which one mutant genome prevails (
). Interestingly, contrary to previous expectations, most mtDNA mutations in adult or aged cells appear to be caused by replication errors early in life, rather than by oxidative damage. These mutations may undergo polyclonal expansion and cause respiratory chain dysfunction in different tissues (
). Studies of accelerated aging in HIV-infected patients treated with antiretroviral drugs, which interfere with mtDNA replication, have supported the concept of clonal expansion of mtDNA mutations originated early in life (
The first evidence that mtDNA damage might be important for aging and age-related diseases derived from the identification of human multisystem disorders caused by mtDNA mutations that partially phenocopy aging (
). Further causative evidence comes from studies on mice that are deficient in mitochondrial DNA polymerase γ. These mutant mice exhibit aspects of premature aging and reduced lifespan in association with the accumulation of random point mutations and deletions in mtDNA (
) (see “Stem Cell Exhaustion”). Future studies are necessary to determine whether genetic manipulations that decrease the load of mtDNA mutations are able to extend lifespan.
Nuclear Architecture
Defects in the nuclear lamina can also cause genome instability (
). Nuclear lamins constitute the major components of the nuclear lamina and participate in genome maintenance by providing a scaffold for tethering chromatin and protein complexes that regulate genomic stability (
). The nuclear lamina attracted the attention of aging researchers after the discovery that mutations in genes encoding protein components of this structure, or factors affecting their maturation and dynamics, cause accelerated aging syndromes such as the Hutchinson-Gilford and the Néstor-Guillermo progeria syndromes (HGPS and NGPS, respectively) (
). Alterations of the nuclear lamina and production of an aberrant prelamin A isoform called progerin have also been detected during normal human aging (
). Telomere dysfunction also promotes progerin production in normal human fibroblasts upon prolonged in vitro culture, suggesting intimate links between telomere maintenance and progerin expression during normal aging (
). In addition to these age-associated changes in A-type lamins, lamin B1 levels decline during cell senescence, pointing to its utility as a biomarker of this process (
Animal and cellular models have facilitated the identification of the stress pathways elicited by aberrations in the nuclear lamina characteristic of HGPS. These pathways include the activation of p53 (
). The causal relevance of nuclear lamina abnormalities in premature aging has been supported by the observation that decreasing prelamin A or progerin levels delays the onset of progeroid features and extends lifespan in mouse models of HGPS. This can be achieved by systemic injection of antisense oligonucleotides, farnesyltransferase inhibitors, or a combination of statins and aminobisphosphonates (
). Moreover, a homologous recombination-based strategy has been developed to correct the LMNA mutations in induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) derived from HGPS patients, opening an avenue toward future cell therapies (
). Further studies are necessary to validate the idea that reinforcement of the nuclear architecture can delay normal aging.
Overview
There is extensive evidence that genomic damage accompanies aging and that its artificial induction can provoke aspects of accelerated aging. In the case of the machinery that ensures faithful chromosomal segregation, there is genetic evidence that its enhancement can extend longevity in mammals (
). Also, in the particular case of progerias associated with nuclear architecture defects, there is proof of principle for treatments that can delay premature aging. Similar avenues should be explored to find interventions that reinforce other aspects of nuclear and mitochondrial genome stability, such as DNA repair, that could have a positive impact on normal aging (telomeres constitute a particular case and are discussed separately).
Telomere Attrition
Accumulation of DNA damage with age appears to affect the genome near to randomly, but there are some chromosomal regions, such as telomeres, that are particularly susceptible to age-related deterioration (
) (Figure 2A). Replicative DNA polymerases lack the capacity to replicate completely the terminal ends of linear DNA molecules, a function that is proprietary of a specialized DNA polymerase known as telomerase. However, most mammalian somatic cells do not express telomerase, and this leads to the progressive and cumulative loss of telomere-protective sequences from chromosome ends. Telomere exhaustion explains the limited proliferative capacity of some types of in-vitro-cultured cells, the so-called replicative senescence, or Hayflick limit (
). A main function of this complex is to prevent the access of DNA repair proteins to the telomeres. Otherwise, telomeres would be “repaired” as DNA breaks leading to chromosome fusions. Due to their restricted DNA repair, DNA damage at telomeres is notably persistent and highly efficient in inducing senescence and/or apoptosis (
Telomerase deficiency in humans is associated with premature development of diseases, such as pulmonary fibrosis, dyskeratosis congenita, and aplastic anemia, which involve the loss of the regenerative capacity of different tissues (
TINF2 mutations result in very short telomeres: analysis of a large cohort of patients with dyskeratosis congenita and related bone marrow failure syndromes.
). Various loss-of-function models for shelterin components are characterized by rapid decline of the regenerative capacity of tissues and accelerated aging, a phenomenon that occurs even in the presence of telomeres with a normal length (
Genetically modified animal models have established causal links between telomere loss, cellular senescence, and organismal aging. Thus, mice with shortened or lengthened telomeres exhibit decreased or increased lifespans, respectively (
). Recent evidence also indicates that aging can be reverted by telomerase activation. In particular, the premature aging of telomerase-deficient mice can be reverted when telomerase is genetically reactivated in these aged mice (
). Moreover, normal physiological aging can be delayed without increasing the incidence of cancer in adult wild-type mice by systemic viral transduction of telomerase (
). In humans, recent meta-analyses have supported the existence of a strong relation between short telomeres and mortality risk, particularly at younger ages (
Normal aging is accompanied by telomere attrition in mammals. Moreover, pathological telomere dysfunction accelerates aging in mice and humans, whereas experimental stimulation of telomerase can delay aging in mice, thus fulfilling all of the criteria for a hallmark of aging.
Epigenetic Alterations
A variety of epigenetic alterations affects all cells and tissues throughout life (
) (Figure 2B). Epigenetic changes involve alterations in DNA methylation patterns, posttranslational modification of histones, and chromatin remodeling. Increased histone H4K16 acetylation, H4K20 trimethylation, or H3K4 trimethylation, as well as decreased H3K9 methylation or H3K27 trimethylation, constitute age-associated epigenetic marks (
). The multiple enzymatic systems assuring the generation and maintenance of epigenetic patterns include DNA methyltransferases, histone acetylases, deacetylases, methylases, and demethylases, as well as protein complexes implicated in chromatin remodeling.
Histone Modifications
Histone methylation meets the criteria for a hallmark of aging in invertebrates. Deletion of components of histone methylation complexes (for H3K4 and for H3K27) extends longevity in nematodes and flies, respectively (
). Moreover, inhibition of histone demethylases (for H3K27) in worms may extend lifespan by targeting components of key longevity routes such as the insulin/IGF-1 signaling pathway (
). It is not yet clear whether manipulations of histone-modifying enzymes can influence aging through purely epigenetic mechanisms, by impinging on DNA repair and genome stability, or through transcriptional alterations affecting metabolic or signaling pathways outside of the nucleus.
Members of the sirtuin family of NAD-dependent protein deacetylases and ADP ribosyltransferases have been studied extensively as potential anti-aging factors. Interest in this family of proteins in relation to aging stems from a series of studies in yeast, flies, and worms, which reported that the single sirtuin gene of these organisms, named Sir2, had a remarkable longevity activity (
), and subsequent reports indicated that enhanced expression of the worm (sir-2.1) and fly (dSir2) orthologs could extend lifespan in both invertebrate model systems (
). These findings have recently been called into question, however, with the report that the lifespan extension originally observed in the worm and fly studies was mostly due to confounding genetic background differences and not to the overexpression of sir-2.1 or dSir2, respectively (
). In particular, transgenic overexpression of mammalian SIRT1, which is the closest homolog to invertebrate Sir2, improves aspects of health during aging but does not increase longevity (
) (see “Deregulated Nutrient Sensing”). More compelling evidence for a sirtuin-mediated prolongevity role in mammals has been obtained for SIRT6, which regulates genomic stability, NF-κB signaling, and glucose homeostasis through histone H3K9 deacetylation (
), whereas male transgenic mice overexpressing SIRT6 have a longer lifespan than control animals, associated with reduced serum IGF-1 and other indicators of IGF-1 signaling (
). Interestingly, the mitochondria-located sirtuin SIRT3 has been reported to mediate some of the beneficial effects of dietary restriction (DR) in longevity, though its effects are not due to histone modifications but, rather, due to the deacetylation of mitochondrial proteins (
). Therefore, in mammals, at least three members of the sirtuin family—SIRT1, SIRT3 and SIRT6—contribute to healthy aging.
DNA Methylation
The relationship between DNA methylation and aging is complex. Early studies described an age-associated global hypomethylation, but subsequent analyses revealed that several loci, including those corresponding to various tumor suppressor genes and Polycomb target genes, actually become hypermethylated with age (
). Cells from patients and mice with progeroid syndromes exhibit DNA methylation patterns and histone modifications that largely recapitulate those found in normal aging (
) (see “Stem Cell Exhaustion”). Nevertheless, there is no direct experimental demonstration thus far that organismal lifespan can be extended by altering patterns of DNA methylation.
Chromatin Remodeling
DNA- and histone-modifying enzymes act in concert with key chromosomal proteins, such as the heterochromatin protein 1α (HP1α), and chromatin remodeling factors, such as Polycomb group proteins or the NuRD complex, whose levels are diminished in both normally and pathologically aged cells (
). Along with the above discussed epigenetic modifications in histones and DNA methylation, alterations in these epigenetic factors determine changes in chromatin architecture, such as global heterochromatin loss and redistribution, which constitute characteristic features of aging (
). The causal relevance of these chromatin alterations in aging is supported by the finding that flies with loss-of-function mutations in HP1α have a shortened lifespan, whereas overexpression of this heterochromatin protein extends longevity in flies and delays the muscular deterioration characteristic of old age (
Supporting the functional relevance of epigenetically mediated chromatin alterations in aging, there is a notable connection between heterochromatin formation at repeated DNA domains and chromosomal stability. In particular, heterochromatin assembly at pericentric regions requires trimethylation of histones H3K9 and H4K20, as well as HP1α binding, and is important for chromosomal stability (
). Mammalian telomeric repeats are also enriched for these chromatin modifications, indicating that chromosome ends are assembled into heterochromatin domains (
). Subtelomeric regions also show features of constitutive heterochromatin, including H3K9 and H4K20 trimethylation, HP1α binding, and DNA hypermethylation. Thus, epigenetic alterations can directly impinge on the regulation of telomere length, one of the hallmarks of aging.
Transcriptional Alterations
Aging is associated with an increase in transcriptional noise (
). Microarray-based comparisons of young and old tissues from several species have identified age-related transcriptional changes in genes encoding key components of inflammatory, mitochondrial, and lysosomal degradation pathways (
). These aging-associated transcriptional signatures also affect noncoding RNAs, including a class of miRNAs (gero-miRs) that is associated with the aging process and influences lifespan by targeting components of longevity networks or by regulating stem cell behavior (
Unlike DNA mutations, epigenetic alterations are—at least theoretically—reversible, hence offering opportunities for the design of novel anti-aging treatments (
). Restoration of physiological H4 acetylation through administration of histone deacetylase inhibitors avoids the manifestation of age-associated memory impairment in mice (
), indicating that reversion of epigenetic changes may have neuroprotective effects. Inhibitors of histone acetyltransferases also ameliorate the premature aging phenotypes of progeroid mice and extend their lifespan (
). Moreover, the recent discovery of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance of longevity in C. elegans suggests that manipulation of specific chromatin modifications in parents can induce an epigenetic memory of longevity in their descendants (
). Conceptually similar to histone acetyltransferase inhibitors, histone deacetylase activators may conceivably promote longevity. Resveratrol has been extensively studied in relation to aging, and among its multiple mechanisms of action are the upregulation of SIRT1 activity, as well as other effects associated with energetic deficits (see “Mitochondrial Dysfunction”).
Overview
There are multiple lines of evidence suggesting that aging is accompanied by epigenetic changes and that epigenetic perturbations can provoke progeroid syndromes in model organisms. Furthermore, SIRT6 exemplifies an epigenetically relevant enzyme whose loss of function reduces longevity and whose gain of function extends longevity in mice (
). Collectively, these works suggest that understanding and manipulating the epigenome holds promise for improving age-related pathologies and extending healthy lifespan.
Loss of Proteostasis
Aging and some aging-related diseases are linked to impaired protein homeostasis or proteostasis (
) (Figure 3). All cells take advantage of an array of quality control mechanisms to preserve the stability and functionality of their proteomes. Proteostasis involves mechanisms for the stabilization of correctly folded proteins—most prominently, the heat-shock family of proteins—and mechanisms for the degradation of proteins by the proteasome or the lysosome (
). Moreover, there are regulators of age-related proteotoxicity, such as MOAG-4, that act through an alternative pathway distinct from molecular chaperones and proteases (
). All of these systems function in a coordinated fashion to restore the structure of misfolded polypeptides or to remove and degrade them completely, thus preventing the accumulation of damaged components and assuring the continuous renewal of intracellular proteins. Accordingly, many studies have demonstrated that proteostasis is altered with aging (
). Additionally, chronic expression of unfolded, misfolded, or aggregated proteins contributes to the development of some age-related pathologies, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and cataracts (
Endogenous and exogenous stress causes the unfolding of proteins (or impairs proper folding during protein synthesis). Unfolded proteins are usually refolded by heat-shock proteins (HSP) or are targeted to destruction by the ubiquitin-proteasome or lysosomal (autophagic) pathways. The autophagic pathways include recognition of unfolded proteins by the chaperone Hsc70 and their subsequent import into lysosomes (chaperone-mediated autophagy) or sequestration of damaged proteins and organelles in autophagosomes that later fuse with lysosomes (macroautophagy). Failure to refold or degrade unfolded proteins can lead to their accumulation and aggregation, resulting in proteotoxic effects.
). A number of animal models support a causative impact of chaperone decline on longevity. In particular, transgenic worms and flies overexpressing chaperones are long-lived (
). Also, mutant mice deficient in a cochaperone of the heat-shock family exhibit accelerated aging phenotypes, whereas long-lived mouse strains show a marked upregulation of some heat-shock proteins (
). Moreover, activation of the master regulator of the heat-shock response, the transcription factor HSF-1, increases longevity and thermotolerance in nematodes (
). In mammalian cells, deacetylation of HSF-1 by SIRT1 potentiates the transactivation of heat-shock genes such as Hsp70, whereas downregulation of SIRT1 attenuates the heat-shock response (
Several approaches for maintaining or enhancing proteostasis aim at activating protein folding and stability mediated by chaperones. Pharmacological induction of the heat-shock protein Hsp72 preserves muscle function and delays progression of dystrophic pathology in mouse models of muscular dystrophy (
). Small molecules may be also employed as pharmacological chaperones to assure the refolding of damaged proteins and to improve age-related phenotypes in model organisms (
The activities of the two principal proteolytic systems implicated in protein quality control—namely, the autophagy-lysosomal system and the ubiquitin-proteasome system—decline with aging (
), supporting the idea that collapsing proteostasis constitutes a common feature of old age.
Regarding autophagy, transgenic mice with an extra copy of the chaperone-mediated autophagy receptor LAMP2a do not experience aging-associated decline in autophagic activity and preserve improved hepatic function with aging (
). Interventions using chemical inducers of macroautophagy (another type of autophagy different than chaperone-mediated autophagy) have spurred extraordinary interest after the discovery that constant or intermittent administration of the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin can increase the lifespan of middle-aged mice (
). However, similar evidence does not yet exist for the effects of rapamycin on mammalian aging, and other mechanisms, such as inhibition of the ribosomal S6 protein kinase 1 (S6K1) implicated in protein synthesis (
), could contribute to explain the longevity effects of rapamycin (see “Deregulated Nutrient Sensing”). Spermidine, another macroautophagy inducer that, in contrast to rapamycin, has no immunosuppressive side effects, also promotes longevity in yeast, flies, and worms via the induction of autophagy (
). Similarly, nutrient supplementation with polyamine preparations containing spermidine or provision of a polyamine-producing gut flora increases longevity in mice (
In relation to the proteasome, activation of EGF signaling extends longevity in nematodes by increasing the expression of various components of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (
). Likewise, the enhancement of proteasome activity by deubiquitylase inhibitors or proteasome activators accelerates the clearance of toxic proteins in human cultured cells (
). Moreover, increased expression of the proteasome subunit RPN-6 by the FOXO transcription factor DAF-16 confers proteotoxic stress resistance and extends lifespan in C. elegans (
There is evidence that aging is associated with perturbed proteostasis, and experimental perturbation of proteostasis can precipitate age-associated pathologies. There are also remarkable examples of genetic manipulations that improve proteostasis and delay aging in mammals (
The somatotrophic axis in mammals comprises the growth hormone (GH), which is produced by the anterior pituitary, and its secondary mediator, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), produced in response to GH by many cell types, most notably hepatocytes. The intracellular signaling pathway of IGF-1 is the same as that elicited by insulin, which informs cells of the presence of glucose. For this reason, IGF-1 and insulin signaling are known as the “insulin and IGF-1 signaling” (IIS) pathway. Remarkably, the IIS pathway is the most conserved aging-controlling pathway in evolution, and among its multiple targets are the FOXO family of transcription factors and the mTOR complexes, which are also involved in aging and conserved through evolution (
). Genetic polymorphisms or mutations that reduce the functions of GH, IGF-1 receptor, insulin receptor, or downstream intracellular effectors such as AKT, mTOR, and FOXO have been linked to longevity, both in humans and in model organisms, further illustrating the major impact of trophic and bioenergetic pathways on longevity (
(A) Deregulated nutrient sensing. Overview of the somatroph axis involving growth hormone (GH) and the insulin/insulin growth factor 1 (IGF-1) signaling pathway and its relationship to dietary restriction and aging. Molecules that favor aging are shown in orange, and molecules with anti-aging properties are shown in light green.
(B) Mitochondrial dysfunction. Mitochondrial function becomes perturbed by aging-associated mtDNA mutations, reduced mitochondriogenesis, destabilization of the electron transport chain (ETC) complexes, altered mitochondrial dynamics, or defective quality control by mitophagy. Stress signals and defective mitochondrial function generate ROS that, below a certain threshold, induce survival signals to restore cellular homeostasis but, at higher or continued levels, can contribute to aging. Similarly, mild mitochondrial damage can induce a hormetic response (mitohormesis) that triggers adaptive compensatory processes.
Consistent with the relevance of deregulated nutrient sensing as a hallmark of aging, dietary restriction (DR) increases lifespan or healthspan in all investigated eukaryote species, including nonhuman primates (
Multiple genetic manipulations that attenuate signaling intensity at different levels of the IIS pathway consistently extend the lifespan of worms, flies, and mice (
). In mice, there are four FOXO members, but the effect of their overexpression on longevity and their role in mediating increased healthspan through reduced IIS have not yet been determined. Mouse FOXO1 is required for the tumor suppressive effect of DR (
), but it is not yet known whether this factor is involved in DR-mediated lifespan extension. More recently, mice with increased dosage of the tumor suppressor PTEN have been reported to exhibit a general downmodulation of the IIS pathway and an increased energy expenditure that is associated with improved mitochondrial oxidative metabolism, as well as with an enhanced activity of the brown adipose tissue (
). In line with other mouse models with decreased IIS activity, Pten-overexpressing mice, as well as hypomorphic PI3K mice, show an increased longevity (
). Thus, a decreased IIS is a common characteristic of both physiological and accelerated aging, whereas a constitutively decreased IIS extends longevity. These apparently contradictory observations can be accommodated under a unifying model by which IIS downmodulation reflects a defensive response aimed at minimizing cell growth and metabolism in the context of systemic damage (
). According to this view, organisms with a constitutively decreased IIS can survive longer because they have lower rates of cell growth and metabolism and, hence, lower rates of cellular damage. Along the same lines, physiologically or pathologically aged organisms decrease IIS in an attempt to extend their lifespan. However, and this is a concept that will recur in the following sections, defensive responses against aging may have the risk of eventually becoming deleterious and aggravating aging. Thus, extremely low levels of IIS signaling are incompatible with life, as exemplified by mouse null mutations in the PI3K or AKT kinases that are embryonic lethal (
Other Nutrient-Sensing Systems: mTOR, AMPK, and Sirtuins
In addition to the IIS pathway that participates in glucose sensing, three additional related and interconnected nutrient-sensing systems are the focus of intense investigation: mTOR, for the sensing of high amino acid concentrations; AMPK, which senses low-energy states by detecting high AMP levels; and sirtuins, which sense low-energy states by detecting high NAD+ levels (
). Genetic downregulation of mTORC1 activity in yeast, worms, and flies extends longevity and attenuates further longevity benefits from DR, suggesting that mTOR inhibition phenocopies DR (
). In mice, treatment with rapamycin also extends longevity in what is considered to be the most robust chemical intervention to increase lifespan in mammals (
). Therefore, the downregulation of mTORC1/S6K1 appears as the critical mediator of mammalian longevity in relation to mTOR. Moreover, mTOR activity increases during aging in mouse hypothalamic neurons, contributing to age-related obesity, which is reversed by direct infusion of rapamycin to the hypothalamus (
). These observations, together with those involving the IIS pathway, indicate that intense trophic and anabolic activity, signaled through the IIS or the mTORC1 pathways, are major accelerators of aging. Although inhibition of TOR activity clearly has beneficial effects during aging, it also has undesirable side effects, such as impaired wound healing, insulin resistance, cataracts, and testicular degeneration in mice (
). It will thus be important to understand the mechanisms involved in order to determine the extent to which beneficial and damaging effects of TOR inhibition can be separated from each other.
The other two nutrient sensors, AMPK and sirtuins, act in the opposite direction to IIS and mTOR, meaning that they signal nutrient scarcity and catabolism instead of nutrient abundance and anabolism. Accordingly, their upregulation favors healthy aging. AMPK activation has multiple effects on metabolism and, remarkably, shuts off mTORC1 (
). The role of sirtuins in lifespan regulation has been discussed above (see “Epigenetic Alterations”). In addition, SIRT1 can deacetylate and activate the PPARγ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α) (
). PGC-1α orchestrates a complex metabolic response that includes mitochondriogenesis, enhanced antioxidant defenses, and improved fatty acid oxidation (
Collectively, current available evidence strongly supports the idea that anabolic signaling accelerates aging and decreased nutrient signaling extends longevity (
) (Figure 4B). The relation between mitochondrial dysfunction and aging has been long suspected, but dissecting its details remains as a major challenge for aging research.
Reactive Oxygen Species
The mitochondrial free radical theory of aging proposes that the progressive mitochondrial dysfunction that occurs with aging results in increased production of ROS, which in turn causes further mitochondrial deterioration and global cellular damage (
). Multiple data support a role for ROS in aging, but we focus here on the developments of the last 5 years, which have forced an intense re-evaluation of the mitochondrial free radical theory of aging (
Against the oxidative damage theory of aging: superoxide dismutases protect against oxidative stress but have little or no effect on life span in Caenorhabditis elegans.
Mice deficient in both Mn superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase-1 have increased oxidative damage and a greater incidence of pathology but no reduction in longevity.
J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci.2009; 64: 1212-1220
). Indeed, parallel and separate to the work on the damaging effects of ROS, the field of intracellular signaling has accumulated solid evidence for the role of ROS in triggering proliferation and survival in response to physiological signals and stress conditions (
). The two lines of evidence can be harmonized if ROS is regarded as a stress-elicited survival signal conceptually similar to AMP or NAD+ (see “Deregulated Nutrient Sensing”). In this sense, the primary effect of ROS will be the activation of compensatory homeostatic responses. As chronological age advances, cellular stress and damage increase and the levels of ROS increase in parallel in an attempt to maintain survival. Beyond a certain threshold, ROS levels betray their original homeostatic purpose and eventually aggravate, rather than alleviate, the age-associated damage (
) (see “Genomic Instability”). This could happen through a number of mechanisms; for example, mitochondrial deficiencies may affect apoptotic signaling by increasing the propensity of mitochondria to permeabilize in response to stress (
). Also, mitochondrial dysfunction may directly impact cellular signaling and interorganellar crosstalk by affecting the interface between the outer mitochondrial membrane and the endoplasmic reticulum (
The reduced efficiency of mitochondrial bioenergetics with aging may result from multiple converging mechanisms, including reduced biogenesis of mitochondria—for instance, as a consequence of telomere attrition in telomerase-deficient mice, with subsequent p53-mediated repression of PGC-1α and PGC-1β (
), targets many enzymes involved in energy metabolism, including components of the respiratory chain, tricarboxylic acid cycle, ketogenesis, and fatty acid β-oxidation (
). SIRT3 may also directly control the rate of ROS production by deacetylating manganese superoxide dismutase, a major mitochondrial antioxidant enzyme (
). Collectively, these results support the idea that telomeres and sirtuins may control mitochondrial function and thus play a protective role against age-associated diseases.
Other mechanisms causing defective bioenergetics include accumulation of mutations and deletions in mtDNA, oxidation of mitochondrial proteins, destabilization of the macromolecular organization of respiratory chain (super)complexes, changes in the lipid composition of mitochondrial membranes, alterations in mitochondrial dynamics resulting from imbalance of fission and fusion events, and defective quality control by mitophagy, an organelle-specific form of macroautophagy that targets deficient mitochondria for proteolytic degradation (
). The combination of increased damage and reduced turnover in mitochondria, due to lower biogenesis and reduced clearance, may contribute to the aging process (Figure 4B).
Interestingly, endurance training and alternate-day fasting may improve healthspan through their capacity to avoid mitochondrial degeneration (
). It is tempting to speculate that these beneficial effects are mediated, at least in part, through the induction of autophagy, for which both endurance training and fasting constitute potent triggers (
). However, autophagy induction is probably not the sole mechanism through which a healthy lifestyle can retard aging, as depending on the precise DR regime, additional longevity pathways can be activated (
Mitochondrial dysfunctions during aging are also connected with hormesis, a concept on which a number of aging research lines have recently converged (
). According to this concept, mild toxic treatments trigger beneficial compensatory responses that surpass the repair of the triggering damage and actually produce an improvement in cellular fitness when compared to the starting predamage conditions. Thus, although severe mitochondrial dysfunction is pathogenic, mild respiratory deficiencies may increase lifespan, perhaps due to a hormetic response (
). Hormetic reactions may trigger a mitochondrial defensive response both in the same tissue in which mitochondria are defective and even in distant tissues, as shown in C. elegans (
). There is compelling evidence that compounds such as metformin and resveratrol are mild mitochondrial poisons that induce a low-energy state characterized by increased AMP levels and activation of AMPK (
). Importantly, metformin extends lifespan in C. elegans through the induction of a compensatory stress response mediated by AMPK and the master antioxidant regulator NRF2 (
). In the cases of resveratrol and the sirtuin activator SRT1720, there is convincing evidence that they protect from metabolic damage and improve mitochondrial respiration in a PGC-1α-dependent fashion (
Evaluation of resveratrol, green tea extract, curcumin, oxaloacetic acid, and medium-chain triglyceride oil on life span of genetically heterogeneous mice.
). Further support for the role of PGC-1α in longevity comes from the observation that PGC-1α overexpression suffices to extend Drosophila lifespan in association with improved mitochondrial activity (
). Finally, mitochondrial uncoupling—either genetically through the overexpression of the uncoupling protein UCP1 or by administration of the chemical uncoupler 2-4-dinitrophenol—can increase lifespan in flies and mice (
), but it is less clear whether improving mitochondrial function, for example through mitohormesis, can extend lifespan in mammals, though suggestive evidence in this sense already exists.
Cellular Senescence
Cellular senescence can be defined as a stable arrest of the cell cycle coupled to stereotyped phenotypic changes (
), but there are other aging-associated stimuli that trigger senescence independently of this telomeric process. Most notably, nontelomeric DNA damage and derepression of the INK4/ARF locus, both of which progressively occur with chronological aging, are also capable of inducing senescence (
). The accumulation of senescent cells in aged tissues has been often inferred using surrogate markers such as DNA damage. Some studies have directly used senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SABG) to identify senescence in tissues (
). Of note, a detailed and parallel quantification of SABG and DNA damage in liver produced comparable quantitative data, yielding a total of ∼8% senescent cells in young mice and ∼17% in very old mice (
). Based on these data, it is clear that cellular senescence is not a generalized property of all tissues in aged organisms. In the case of senescent tumor cells, there is good evidence that they are subjected to strict immune surveillance and are efficiently removed by phagocytosis (
). Conceivably, the accumulation of senescent cells with aging can reflect an increase in the rate of generation of senescent cells and/or a decrease in their rate of clearance—for example, as a consequence of an attenuated immune response.
Figure 5Cellular Senescence, Stem Cell Exhaustion, and Altered Intercellular Communication
(A) Cellular senescence. In young organisms, cellular senescence prevents the proliferation of damaged cells, thus protecting from cancer and contributing to tissue homeostasis. In old organisms, the pervasive damage and the deficient clearance of senescent cells result in their accumulation, and this has a number of deleterious effects on tissue homeostasis that contribute to aging.
(B) Stem cell exhaustion. Consequences of the exhaustion of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), satellite cells, and intestinal epithelial stem cells (IESCs) are exemplified.
(C) Altered intercellular communication. Examples of altered intercellular communication associated with aging.
Because the number of senescent cells increases with aging, it has been widely assumed that senescence contributes to aging. However, this view undervalues what conceivably is the primary purpose of senescence, which is to prevent the propagation of damaged cells and to trigger their demise by the immune system. Therefore, it is possible that senescence is a beneficial compensatory response that contributes to rid tissues from damaged and potentially oncogenic cells. This cellular checkpoint, however, requires an efficient cell replacement system that involves clearance of senescent cells and mobilization of progenitors to re-establish cell numbers. In aged organisms, this turnover system may become inefficient or may exhaust the regenerative capacity of progenitor cells, eventually resulting in the accumulation of senescent cells that may aggravate the damage and contribute to aging (Figure 5A).
In recent years, it has been appreciated that senescent cells manifest dramatic alterations in their secretome, which is particularly enriched in proinflammatory cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases and is referred to as the “senescence-associated secretory phenotype” (
). This proinflammatory secretome may contribute to aging (see “Intercellular Communication”).
The INK4a/ARF Locus and p53
In addition to DNA damage, excessive mitogenic signaling is the other stress most robustly associated to senescence. A recent account listed more than 50 oncogenic or mitogenic alterations that are able to induce senescence (
). The number of mechanisms that implement senescence in response to this variety of oncogenic insults has also grown, but the originally reported p16INK4a/Rb and p19ARF/p53 pathways remain, in general, the most important ones (
). The relevance of these pathways for aging becomes even more striking when considering that the levels of p16INK4a (and, to a lower extent, also p19ARF) correlate with the chronological age of essentially all tissues analyzed both in mice and humans (
). We are not aware of any other gene or protein whose expression is so robustly correlated with chronological aging across tissues, across species, and with a range of variation that, on average, is one order of magnitude between young and old tissues. Both p16INK4a and p19ARF are encoded by the same genetic locus, the INK4a/ARF locus. A recent meta-analysis of more than 300 genome-wide association studies (GWAS) identified the INK4a/ARF locus as the genomic locus that is genetically linked to the highest number of age-associated pathologies, including several types of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, glaucoma, and Alzheimer’s disease (
). These observations place the INK4a/ARF locus as the best documented gene that controls human aging and aging-associated pathologies. A critical pending issue is to determine whether the disease-associated INK4a/ARF alleles present gain or loss of function.
The critical role of p16INK4a and p53 in the induction of cell senescence has favored the hypothesis that p16INK4a-induced and p53-induced senescence contribute to physiological aging. According to this view, the pro-aging activity of p16INK4a and p53 would be a tolerable toll compared to their benefits in tumor suppression. In support of this, mutant mice with premature aging due to extensive and persistent damage present dramatic levels of senescence, and their progeroid phenotypes are ameliorated by elimination of p16INK4a or p53. This is the case with mice deficient in BRCA1 (
). However, other evidences suggest a more complicated picture. In contrast to their anticipated pro-aging role, mice with a mild and systemic increase in p16INK4a, p19ARF, or p53 tumor suppressors exhibit extended longevity, which cannot be accounted for by their lower cancer incidence (
). Again, as discussed above for senescence, the activation of p53 and INK4a/ARF can be regarded as a beneficial compensatory response aimed at avoiding the propagation of damaged cells and its consequences on aging and cancer. However, when damage is pervasive, the regenerative capacity of tissues can be exhausted or saturated, and under these extreme conditions, the p53 and INK4a/ARF responses can become deleterious and accelerate aging.
Overview
We propose that cellular senescence is a beneficial compensatory response to damage that becomes deleterious and accelerates aging when tissues exhaust their regenerative capacity. Given these complexities, it is not possible to give a simple answer to the question of whether cell senescence fulfills the third ideal criteria for the definition of a hallmark. A moderate enhancement of the senescence-inducing tumor suppressor pathways may extend longevity (
). Therefore, two interventions that are conceptually opposite are able to extend healthspan.
Stem Cell Exhaustion
The decline in the regenerative potential of tissues is one of the most obvious characteristics of aging (Figure 5B). For example, hematopoiesis declines with age, resulting in a diminished production of adaptive immune cells—a process termed immunosenescence—and in an increased incidence of anemia and myeloid malignancies (
). Studies on aged mice have revealed an overall decrease in cell-cycle activity of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), with old HSCs undergoing fewer cell divisions than young HSCs (
). These are just examples of a much larger picture in which stem cell decline emerges as the integrative consequence of multiple types of damage.
Although deficient proliferation of stem and progenitor cells is obviously detrimental for the long-term maintenance of the organism, an excessive proliferation of stem and progenitor cells can also be deleterious by accelerating the exhaustion of stem cell niches. The importance of stem cell quiescence for the long-term functionality of stem cells has been compellingly demonstrated in the case of Drosophila intestinal stem cells, in which excessive proliferation leads to exhaustion and premature aging (
). In this regard, the induction of INK4a during aging (see “Cellular Senescence”) and the decrease of serum IGF-1 (see “Deregulated Nutrient Sensing”) may both reflect an attempt of the organism to preserve the quiescence of stem cells. Also, recent studies have shown that an increase in FGF2 signaling in the aged muscle stem cell niche results in the loss of quiescence and eventually in stem cell depletion and diminished regenerative capacity, whereas suppression of this signaling pathway rescues these defects (
). This opens the possibility of designing strategies aimed at inhibiting FGF2 signaling to reduce stem cell exhaustion during aging. Along these lines, DR has been reported to increase intestinal and muscle stem functions (
). Recent work has provided strong support for the latter. In particular, transplantation of muscle-derived stem cells from young mice to progeroid mice extends lifespan and improves degenerative changes of these animals even in tissues in which donor cells are not detected, suggesting that their therapeutic benefit may derive from systemic effects caused by secreted factors (
). Furthermore, parabiosis experiments have demonstrated that the decline in neural and muscle stem cell function in old mice can be reversed by systemic factors from young mice (
Pharmacological interventions are also being explored to improve stem cell function. In particular, mTORC1 inhibition with rapamycin, which can postpone aging by improving proteostasis (see “Loss of Proteostasis”) and by affecting energy sensing (see “Deregulated Nutrient Sensing”), may also improve stem cell function in the epidermis, in the hematopoietic system, and in the intestine (
). This also illustrates the difficulty of disentangling the mechanistic basis for the anti-aging activity of rapamycin and underscores the interconnectedness between the different hallmarks of aging discussed here. It is also worth mentioning that it is possible to rejuvenate human senescent cells by pharmacological inhibition of the GTPase CDC42, whose activity is increased in aged HSCs (
Stem cell exhaustion unfolds as the integrative consequence of multiple types of aging-associated damages and likely constitutes one of the ultimate culprits of tissue and organismal aging. Recent promising studies suggest that stem cell rejuvenation may reverse the aging phenotype at the organismal level (
Beyond cell-autonomous alterations, aging also involves changes at the level of intercellular communication, be it endocrine, neuroendocrine, or neuronal (
) (Figure 5C). Thus, neurohormonal signaling (e.g., renin-angiotensin, adrenergic, insulin-IGF1 signaling) tends to be deregulated in aging as inflammatory reactions increase, immunosurveillance against pathogens and premalignant cells declines, and the composition of the peri- and extracellular environment changes.
Inflammation
A prominent aging-associated alteration in intercellular communication is “inflammaging,” i.e., a smoldering proinflammatory phenotype that accompanies aging in mammals (
). Inflammaging may result from multiple causes, such as the accumulation of proinflammatory tissue damage, the failure of an ever more dysfunctional immune system to effectively clear pathogens and dysfunctional host cells, the propensity of senescent cells to secrete proinflammatory cytokines (see “Cellular Senescence”), the enhanced activation of the NF-κB transcription factor, or the occurrence of a defective autophagy response (
). These alterations result in an enhanced activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and other proinflammatory pathways, finally leading to increased production of IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor, and interferons (
). Inflammation is also involved in the pathogenesis of obesity and type 2 diabetes, two conditions that contribute to and correlate with aging in the human population (
) further supports the intricate concatenation of different hallmarks that reinforces the aging process. Paralleling inflammaging, the function of the adaptive immune system declines (
). This immunosenescence may aggravate the aging phenotype at the systemic level due to the failure of the immune system to clear infectious agents, infected cells, and cells on the verge of malignant transformation. Moreover, one of the functions of the immune system is to recognize and eliminate senescent cells (see “Stem Cell Exhaustion”), as well as hyperploid cells that accumulate in aging tissues and premalignant lesions (
). Overactivation of the NF-κB pathway is one of these transcriptional signatures of aging, and conditional expression of an NF-κB inhibitor in the aged skin of transgenic mice causes the phenotypic rejuvenation of this tissue, as well as the restoration of the transcriptional signature corresponding to young age (
). Likewise, genetic and pharmacological inhibition of NF-κB signaling prevents age-associated features in different mouse models of accelerated aging (
). A novel link between inflammation and aging derives from the recent finding that inflammatory and stress responses activate NF-κB in the hypothalamus and induce a signaling pathway that results in reduced production of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) by neurons (
). This GnRH decline can contribute to numerous aging-related changes such as bone fragility, muscle weakness, skin atrophy, and reduced neurogenesis. Consistently, GnRH treatment prevents aging-impaired neurogenesis and decelerates aging development in mice (
). These findings suggest that the hypothalamus may modulate systemic aging by integrating NF-kB-driven inflammatory responses with GnRH-mediated neuroendocrine effects.
Further in vivo evidence linking inflammation and aging derives from work on the mRNA decay factor AUF1, which is implicated in the cessation of the inflammatory response by mediating cytokine mRNA degradation (
). AUF1-deficient mice exhibit a marked cellular senescence and premature aging phenotype that can be rescued by re-expression of this RNA-binding factor. Interestingly, in addition to directing inflammatory cytokine mRNA decay, AUF1 contributes to maintaining telomere length by activating the expression of the telomerase catalytic subunit TERT (
), again demonstrating that one single factor may have a strong impact on different aging hallmarks.
A similar situation occurs with sirtuins, which may also have an impact on inflammatory responses associated with aging. Several studies have revealed that, by deacetylating histones and components of inflammatory signaling pathways such as NF-κB, SIRT1 can downregulate inflammation-related genes (
). Consistent with these findings, reduction of SIRT1 levels correlates with the development and progression of many inflammatory diseases, and pharmacologic activation of SIRT1 may prevent inflammatory responses in mice (
). SIRT2 and SIRT6 may also downregulate the inflammatory response through deacetylation of NF-kB subunits and transcriptional repression of their target genes (
Beyond inflammation, accumulating evidence indicates that aging-related changes in one tissue can lead to aging-specific deterioration of other tissues, explaining the interorgan coordination of the aging phenotype. In addition to inflammatory cytokines, there are other examples of “contagious aging” or bystander effects in which senescent cells induce senescence in neighboring cells via gap-junction-mediated cell-cell contacts and processes involving ROS (
There are several possibilities for restoring defective intercellular communication underlying aging processes, including genetic, nutritional, or pharmacological interventions that may improve the cell-cell communication properties that are lost with aging (
). Additionally, given that the gut microbiome shapes the function of the host immune system and exerts systemic metabolic effects, it appears possible to extend lifespan by manipulating the composition and functionality of the complex and dynamic intestinal bacterial ecosystem of the human body (
There is compelling evidence that aging is not an exclusively cell-biological phenomenon and that it is coupled to a general alteration in intercellular communication, offering opportunities to modulate aging at this level. Excitingly, proof of principle exists for rejuvenation through blood-borne systemic factors (
A global view of the nine candidate hallmarks of aging enumerated in this Review suggests three categories: primary hallmarks, antagonistic hallmarks, and integrative hallmarks (Figure 6). The common characteristic of the primary hallmarks is the fact that they are all unequivocally negative. This is the case with DNA damage, including chromosomal aneuploidies; mitochondrial DNA mutations; and telomere loss, epigenetic drift, and defective proteostasis. In contrast to the primary hallmarks, antagonistic hallmarks have opposite effects depending on their intensity. At low levels, they mediate beneficial effects, but at high levels, they become deleterious. This is the case for senescence, which protects the organism from cancer but which, in excess, can promote aging. Similarly, ROS mediate cell signaling and survival but, at chronic high levels, can produce cellular damage; likewise, optimal nutrient sensing and anabolism are obviously important for survival but, in excess and during time, can become pathological. These hallmarks can be viewed as being designed for protecting the organism from damage or from nutrient scarcity. But when they are exacerbated or chronic, they subvert their purpose and generate further damage. A third category comprises the integrative hallmarks—stem cell exhaustion and altered intercellular communication—that directly affect tissue homeostasis and function. Notwithstanding the interconnectedness between all hallmarks, we propose some degree of hierarchical relation between them (Figure 6). The primary hallmarks could be the initiating triggers whose damaging consequences progressively accumulate with time. The antagonistic hallmarks, being in principle beneficial, become progressively negative in a process that is partly promoted or accelerated by the primary hallmarks. Finally, the integrative hallmarks arise when the accumulated damage caused by the primary and antagonistic hallmarks cannot be compensated by tissue homeostatic mechanisms. Because the hallmarks co-occur during aging and are interconnected, understanding their exact causal network is an exciting challenge for future work.
Figure 6Functional Interconnections between the Hallmarks of Aging
The proposed nine hallmarks of aging are grouped into three categories. (Top) Those hallmarks considered to be the primary causes of cellular damage. (Middle) Those considered to be part of compensatory or antagonistic responses to the damage. These responses initially mitigate the damage, but eventually, if chronic or exacerbated, they become deleterious themselves. (Bottom) Integrative hallmarks that are the end result of the previous two groups of hallmarks and are ultimately responsible for the functional decline associated with aging.
Defining hallmarks of aging may contribute to (1) building a framework for future studies on the molecular mechanisms of aging and (2) designing interventions to improve human healthspan (Figure 7). However, there are still numerous challenges ahead in relation to understanding this complex biological process (
). The rapid development of next-generation sequencing technologies may have a special impact on aging research by facilitating the evaluation of the genetic and epigenetic changes specifically accumulated by individual cells in an aging organism (
). These techniques are already being used to determine the whole-genome sequence of individuals with exceptional longevity, to perform comparative genomic studies between short-lived and long-lived animal species and strains, and to analyze age-associated epigenetic changes at maximum resolution (
). Parallel in vivo studies with gain- or loss-of-function animal models will be necessary for moving beyond correlative analyses and providing causal evidence in favor of the implication of these proposed hallmarks in the aging process. Besides the characterization of individual hallmarks, systems biology approaches will be required to understand the mechanistic links among the processes that accompany and lead to aging (
). Additionally, molecular analysis of the genome-environment interactions that modulate aging will help to identify drug targets for longevity promotion (
). We surmise that ever more sophisticated approaches will eventually resolve many of the pending issues. Hopefully, these combined approaches will allow a detailed understanding of the mechanisms underlying the hallmarks of aging and will facilitate future interventions for improving human healthspan and longevity.
Figure 7Interventions that Might Extend Human Healthspan
We thank all members of our labs for their helpful comments on the manuscript and apologize for omission of relevant works due to space constraints. C.L.-O. is supported by grants from Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) and Instituto de Salud Carlos III (RTICC) and is an Investigator of the Botín Foundation. M.S. is funded by grants from the MINECO, European Union (ERC Advanced Grant), Regional Government of Madrid, Botín Foundation, Ramón Areces Foundation, and AXA Foundation. L.P. is supported by the Max Planck Society, the ERC, and the Wellcome Trust (UK). M.A.B. is funded by ERC Project TEL STEM CELL; FP7 Projects MARK-AGE; and EuroBATS, MINECO, Regional Government of Madrid, AXA Research Fund, Botín Foundation, and Fundación Lilly (Spain). G.K. is supported by the Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer (Equipes labellisée), Agence Nationale pour la Recherche, AXA Foundation Chair for Longevity Research, European Commission (ERC Advanced Grant, ArtForce, ChemoRes), Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale (FRM), Institut National du Cancer (INCa), Fondation de France, Cancéropôle Ile-de-France, Fondation Bettencourt-Schueller, the LabEx Immuno-Oncology, and the Paris Alliance of Cancer Research Institutes. All of the authors contributed equally to conceive and elaborate upon the ideas presented in this Review. All of the authors can be contacted for discussions or clarifications.
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