Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Rumination and Worry in Nonclinical Adolescents

  • Published:
Cognitive Therapy and Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Worry and rumination both refer to unproductive, repetitive thought processes. Few studies have addressed the relationship between these two constructs, with most researchers exclusively relating rumination to depression and worry to anxiety. The present study examined relationships between self-reported rumination as assessed by the Children's Response Style Scale (CRSS), worry as measured by the Penn State Worry Questionnaire for Children (PSWQ-C), and anxiety and depression symptoms as indexed by respectively the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) and the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) in a sample of 337 nonclinical adolescents aged 12–17 years. Results showed that rumination and worry were substantially correlated. Further, a factor analysis showed that both constructs were nevertheless distinct as rumination and worry items loaded on separate factors. Interestingly, both rumination and worry correlated more substantially with anxiety symptoms than with depression symptoms. Finally, worry emerged as a unique predictor of anxiety symptoms, even when controlling for rumination. In contrast, when controlling for worry, rumination no longer accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in depression symptoms.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Brozina, K., & Haigh, E. P. (2002). An examination of the response styles theory of depression in third-and seventh-grade children: A short-term longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 515–527.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, G. A., Borchardt, C. M., & Perwien, A. R. (1996). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Areview of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1110–1119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Chiappetta, L., Bridge, J., Monga, S., & Baugher, M. (1999). Psychometric properties of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): A replication study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1230–1236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birmaher, B., Khetarpal, S., Brent, D., Cully, M., Balach, L., Kaufman, J., et al. (1997). The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): Scale construction and psychometric characteristics. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 545–553.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birmaher, B., Ryan, N. D., Williamson, D. E., Brent, D. A., Kaufman, J., Dahl, R. E., et al. (1996). Childhood and adolescent depression: A review of the past 10 years. Part I. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1427–1439.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blagden, J. C., & Craske, M. G. (1996). Effects of active and passive rumination and distraction: A pilot replication with anxious mood. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 10, 243–252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borkovec, T. D., Robinson, E., Pruzinsky, T., & DePree, J. A. (1983). Preliminary exploration of worry: Some characteristics and processes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21, 9–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broderick, P. C. (1998). Early adolescent gender differences in the use of ruminative and distracting coping styles. Journal of Early Adolescence, 18, 173–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler, L. D., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1994). Gender differences in responses to depressed mood in a college sample. Sex Roles, 30, 331–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chorpita, B. F., Tracey, S. A., Brown, T. A., Collica, T. J., & Barlow, D. H. (1997). Assessment of worry in children and adolescents: An adaptation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 569–581.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daleiden, E. L., & Vasey, M. W. (1997). An information-processing perspective on childhood anxiety. Clinical Psychology Review, 17, 407–429.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flavell, J. H., Miller, P. H., & Miller, S. A. (1993). Cognitive development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleming, J. E., & Offord, D. R. (1990). Epidemiology of childhood depressive disorders: Acritical review. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 571–580.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fresco, D. M., Frankel, A. N., Mennin, D. S., Turk, C. L., & Heimberg, R. G. (2002). Distinct and overlapping features of rumination and worry: The relationship of cognitive production to negative affective states. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 179–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gladstone, T. R. G., & Kaslow, N. J. (1995). Depression and attributions in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 597–606.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E., & Wagner, K. D. (1995). Attributional style and depression in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 15, 777–798.

    Google Scholar 

  • Just, N., & Alloy, L. B. (1997). The response styles theory of depression: Tests and an extension of the theory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 221–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, P. C., Cantwell, D. P., & Kazdin, A. E. (1989). Depression in children and adolescents: Assessment issues and recommendations. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 13, 109–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, N. J., Ollendick, T. H., & Gullone, E. (1991). Negative affectivity in children and adolescents: Relations between anxiety and depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 11, 441–459.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M. (1981). Rating scales to assess depression in school-aged children. Acta Paedopsychiatrica, 46, 305–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Clarke, G. N., Seeley, J. R., & Rohde, P. (1994). Major depression in community adolescents: Age at onset, episode duration, and time to recurrence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 809–818.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Duncan, E. M., Stanton, A. K., & Hautziner, M. (1986). Age at onset for first unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 378–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Hops, H., Roberts, R. E., Seeley, J. R., & Andrews, J. A. (1993). Adolescent psychopathology: I. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III-R disorders in high school students. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 133–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1993). Self-perpetuating properties of dysphoric rumination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 339–349.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meng, X. L., Rosenthal, R., & Rubin, D. B. (1992). Comparing correlated correlation coefficients. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 172–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Dreessen, L., Bögels, S. M., Weckx, M., & Van Melick, M. (2004). A questionnaire for screening a broad range of DSM-defined anxiety disorder symptoms in clinically referred children and adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 813–820.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Meesters, C., & Gobel, M. (2001). Reliability, validity, and normative data of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire in 8-to 12-year old children. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 32, 63–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Ollendick, T. H., King, N. J., & Bogie, N. (2002). Three traditional and three new childhood anxiety questionnaires: Their reliability and validity in a normal adolescent sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 753–772.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Schmidt, H., Lambrichs, R., & Meesters, C. (2001). Protective and vulnerability factors of depression in normal adolescents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 555–565.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolan, S. A., Roberts, J. E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1998). Neuroticism and ruminative response style as predictors of change in depressive symptomatology. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22, 445–455.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 259–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 569–582.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1998). Ruminative coping with depression. In J. Heckhausen & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulation across the life span (pp. 237–256). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 504–511.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J. S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424–443.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. S., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1992). Predictors and consequences of childhood depressive symptoms: A 5-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 405–422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C. (1999). Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1061–1072.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1993). Effects of rumination and distraction on naturally-occurring depressed moods. Cognition and Emotion, 7, 561–570.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Morrow, J., & Fredrickson, B. L. (1993). Response styles and the duration of episodes of depressed mood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 20–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Papageorgiou, C., & Siegle, G. J. (2003). Rumination and depression: Advances in theory and research. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 243–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Papageorgiou, C., & Wells, A. (1999). Process and meta-cognitive dimensions of depressive and anxious thoughts and relationships with emotional intensity. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 6, 156–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, M. S., & Alloy, L. B. (2003). Negative cognitive styles and stress-reactive rumination interact to predict depression: A prospective study. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 275–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saylor, C. F., Finch, A. J., Spirito, A., & Bennett, B. (1984). The Children's Depression Inventory: A systematic evaluation of psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 955–967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, J. A. J., & Koenig, L. J. (1996). Response styles and negative affect among adolescents. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 20, 13–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Segerstrom, S. C., Tsao, J. C. I., Alden, L. E., & Craske, M. G. (2000). Worry and rumination: Repetitive thought as a concomitant and predictor of negative mood. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24, 671–688.

    Google Scholar 

  • Starcevic, V. (1995). Pathological worry in major depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 55–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szabó, M., & Lovibond, P. F. (2002). The cognitive content of naturally occurring worry episodes. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 167–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teasdale, J. D. (1983). Negative thinking in depression: Cause, effect, or reciprocal relationship? Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 5, 27–49

    Google Scholar 

  • Timbremont, B., & Braet, C. (2001). Psychometrische evaluatie van de Nederlandstalige Children's Depression Inventory (Psychometric assessment of the Dutch version of the Children's Depression Inventory). Gedragstherapie, 34, 229–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vickers, K. S., & Vogeltanz-Holm, N. D. (2003). The effects of rumination and distraction tasks on psychophysiological responses and mood in dysphoric and nondysphoric individuals. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 331–348.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ziegert, D. I., & Kistner, J. A. (2002). Response styles theory: Downward extension to children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 325–334.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medical, Clinical, and Experimental Psychology, Maastricht University, The Netherlands

    Peter Muris, Jeffrey Roelofs, Cor Meesters & Petra Boomsma

Authors
  1. Peter Muris
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jeffrey Roelofs
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Cor Meesters
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Petra Boomsma
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Muris, P., Roelofs, J., Meesters, C. et al. Rumination and Worry in Nonclinical Adolescents. Cognitive Therapy and Research 28, 539–554 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:COTR.0000045563.66060.3e

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:COTR.0000045563.66060.3e

Search

Navigation