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Research Articles

Again, making Tanzania great: Magufuli’s restorationist developmental nationalism

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Pages 1240-1260 | Received 15 Dec 2019, Accepted 11 May 2020, Published online: 10 Jun 2020
 

ABSTRACT

This article is about how ideologies legitimize authoritarianism. The literature argues that liberation nationalists discursively construct “liberation” as an ongoing struggle and justify their authoritarian rule until its completion. By recurrently postponing liberation, they extend this justification of authoritarianism. Nonetheless, their claim that the nation is part-way through liberation becomes less plausible over time. Liberation nationalism shares a discursive structure with a parallel class of developmental nationalisms. I analyse the ideology of President Magufuli and CCM in Tanzania. Instead of claiming that the nation is mid-transformation, they constructed the status quo as a corrupt deviation from a past order: “Nyerere’s Tanzania”. They conceived of this past order as a nation dedicated to industrial development which would lead to a transformed future. They advocated rupture with the present, the restoration of the past and the resumption of this transformative journey. Restorationism relieves liberation and developmental nationalisms of the rising rhetorical challenge of claiming that the nation has been on a transformative path since liberation. Therefore, Magufuli and CCM developed a variant upon liberation and developmental nationalisms, which also justifies authoritarianism. Unlike them, it remains rhetorically viable as the moment of liberation or development becomes distant. I call it restorationist developmental nationalism.

Acknowledgements

Thanks to Aikande Kwayu, Athuman Mtulya, Deogratias Munishi, Erick Mwakibete, Beverley Pannell, Alastair Fraser and Calum Fisher for their insights, which improved the quality of this paper substantially. Thanks to Aikande Kwayu and Sammy Awami for their comments on previous versions of this paper. Thanks to the editors of Democratization and the two anonymous reviewers. Special thanks to the research assistants, who wish to remain anonymous. Any errors are my own.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Beresford, Berry and Mann, “Liberation Movements.”

2 Dorman, Understanding Zimbabwe.

3 Beresford, Berry and Mann, “Liberation Movements;” Dorman, Understanding Zimbabwe.

4 Beresford, “Regenerative Nationalism.”

5 Beresford, “Regenerative Nationalism,” 884; Dorman, “Post-Liberation.”

6 Desai, “Introduction: Nationalisms.”

7 Paget, “Shrinking Space and Opposition Protest.”

8 Laclau and Mouffe, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy.

9 Cheeseman, “A Divided Continent.”

10 Morse, How Autocrats Compete; Collord, “Comparing Authoritarian Parties and Parliaments.”

11 Makulilo, “Unleveled Playfield.”

12 Paget, “Authoritarian Origins.”

13 Paget, “Shrinking Space.”

14 Laclau and Mouffe, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy.

15 Taylor, “Interpretation.”

16 Jacob and Pedersen, “New Resource Nationalism?”

17 Schwartz-Shea and Yanow, Interpretive Research Design, 4.

18 Pedersen and Jacob, Political Settlements, 10.

19 Taylor, “Interpretation.”

20 Schwartz-Shea and Yanow, Interpretive Research Design, 189.

21 Ibid., 84–9.

22 Ibid., 95–7.

23 Ibid., 106.

24 Thanks to Aikande Kwayu for suggesting that I emphasize this point.

25 Msekwa, “Reflections on CCM's History.”

26 Dorman, “Post-Liberation.”

27 Young, Ideology and Development in Africa, 23.

28 Hendrickson and Zaki, “Modern African Ideologies.”

29 Young, Ideology and Development in Africa, 27 and 98.

30 Beresford, “Regenerative Nationalism,” 863.

31 Tendi, “Robert Mugabe;” Dorman, Understanding Zimbabwe.

32 Dorman, “Post-Liberation.”

33 Tendi, “Robert Mugabe;”

34 Dorman, “Post-Liberation,” 1096.

35 Tendi, “Robert Mugabe;” Dorman, “Post-Liberation”.

36 Dorman, “Post-Liberation,” 1096.

37 Bereford, Berry and Mann. “Liberation Movements.”

38 Ibid.

39 Laclau and Mouffe, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy; Glynos and Howarth, Logics of Critical Explanation.

40 Glynos and Howarth, Logics of Critical Explanation, 145.

41 Ibid.

42 Ibid., 147 and 150.

43 Ibid.; de Cleen, “Populism and Nationalism.”

44 Beresford, “Regenerative Nationalism.”

45 Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine.

46 Desai, “Introduction: Nationalisms.”

47 Nyerere, Uhuru na Ujamaa.

48 Nyerere, Uhuru na Maendeleo.

49 Ibid.; Schneider, “Freedom and Unfreedom.”

50 Schneider, “Freedom and Unfreedom.”

51 Nkrumah, Class Struggle, 9, 47 and 80.

52 Dorman, “Nationalism.”

53 Larmer and Lecocq, “Historicising Nationalism in Africa;” Glynos and Howarth, Logics of Critical Explanation.

54 Dorman, “Narratives of Nationalism.”

55 Dorman, “Nationalism.”

56 Ibid.; Dorman, “Post-Liberation Politics.”

57 Dorman, “Post-Liberation Politics,” 1095.

58 Beresford, “Regenerative Nationalism,” 884.

59 Ibid., 867.

60 Beresford, Berry and Mann, “Liberation Movements,” 1234.

61 Dorman, “Post-Liberation Politics, ” 1087.

62 de Cleen, “The Conservative Political Logic,” 21.

63 Ibid., 21.

64 Payne, Fascism, 17.

65 Paget, “Mistaken for Populism.”

66 Ibid.

67 de Cleen, “Populism and Nationalism.”

68 Canovan, “People.”

69 Urbinati, Me the People.

70 Ibid.

71 Dorman, “Nationalism.”

72 Hall and Young, Confronting Leviathan, 68. Thanks to Alastair Fraser for this example.

73 Nkrumah, Consciencism, 70.

74 De Cleen “The Conservative Political Logic.”

75 Jacob and Pedersen, “New Resource Nationalism?;” Poncian, “Galvanising Political Support;” Nyamsenda, “Bulldozing like a Fascist?”

76 Schwartz-Shea and Yanow, 4.

77 Poncian, “Galvanising Political Support.”

78 Jacob and Pedersen, “New Resource Nationalism?”

79 Ibid., 289.

80 Ibid., 288.

81 Pedersen and Thabit Jacob, “Political Settlements,” 10.

82 Fouéré, “Julius Nyerere.”

83 Akew, “Sung and Unsung;” Nyaluke and Connolly, “The Role of Political Ideas.”

84 Peace is associated with ethnic unity in this discourse.

85 Phillips, “Pater Rules Best.”

86 Kwayu, “Politics of Image.”

87 Fouéré, “Julius Nyerere;” Kwayu, “Different Uses of Nyerere;” Becker, “Remembering Nyerere.”

88 Fouéré, “Julius Nyerere,” 6.

89 Ibid., 16.

90 Ibid., 16.

91 Kanyabwoya, “Magufuli’s Method in Madness.”

92 Jacob and Pedersen, “New Resource Nationalism?”; Poncian, “Galvanising Political Support.”

93 The East African, “Tanzanian President.”

94 Paget, “Mistaken for Populism;” Cheeseman, “Tanzania Suffers.”

95 Becker, “Remembering Nyerere;” Kwayu, “Different Uses.”

96 Paget, “Mistaken for Populism.”

97 Ngarabali, “CCM Traitors.”

98 Masare, “CAG’s Report.”

99 BBC, “Tanzania’s President Magufuli Sacks.”

100 Mwangonde and Mesomapya, “JPM Attacks Judiciary.”

101 Fouéré, “Julius Nyerere;” Becker, “Remembering Nyerere.”

102 VoA, “Clottey interview.”

103 BBC, “Tanzanian Opposition;” Pedersen and Jacob, “Political Settlements,” 22.

104 Typically, they refer to “gays” or “homosexuality”.

105 For a more extensive discussion, see Nyamsenda, “Bulldozing Like a Fascist? ”, and Paget, “Shrinking Space and Opposition Protest.”

106 Mugarula, “Nchemba.”

107 Jacobsen and Obulutsa, “Tanzania Loses Denmark Aid.”

108 Industrialization gained gradual prominence in CCM’s vocabulary during Kikwete’s second term. See for example Lugongo, “Kikwete Hits Out.”

109 Ministry of Finance and Planning, “National Five Year Development Plan.”

110 Magufuli, “Speech Officially Inaugurating.”

111 *Original text: “ … madarakani imejitahidi kurejea na kuweka katika vitendo dhana ya mwalimu nyerere ya uchumi wa viwanda.” Nipashe, “Naibu waziri asema Magufuli afuata.”

112 Ministry of Finance and Planning, “National Five.”

113 Kolumbia, “We Erred.”

114 Emphasizing industrialization was a direction deviation from the prognosis in the Arusha Declaration. This contradiction between the policies of Nyerere and Magufuli is not highlighted by the latter.

115 Thanks to Erick Mwakibete for stressing the importance of this initiative to me.

116 *Original text: “ … baba wa taifa mwaka 1973 alisema tuhamie Dodoma ndio makao makuu ya nchi, Dodoma tunahamia na mimi ndio nakaribia kumalizia … ” Millard Ayo, “Rais Magufuli.”

117 *Original text: “ … Magufuli anafuata nyayo za Nyerere … ” Msungu, “Magufuli anavyotabiriwa.”

118 Boeing, “787 Dreamliner.”

119 *Original text: “Tumefufua ATCL kurejesha heshima ya nchi … ” Ayo, “Mambo 7 toka.”

120 The Citizen, “Hooray!”

121 Thanks to Deogratias Munishi for emphasizing the rhetorical importance of Stiegler’s Gorge.

122 Dye, “Illiberal Modernizers.”

123 Msechu, “Magufuli atoa sababu tano.”

124 *Original text: “kila alichokua amekitamani kukifanya Baba wa Taifa, Stigler’s Gorge, Kufanya nini, kujitegemea, tunaona matokeo yake tunapojaribu kuyafanya, tunafanikiwa … ” State House Media, “Rais Dkt. John Magufuli.”

125 *Original text: “Azimio la Arusha ukilisoma, unajua kila kitu kiko pale, kila kitu ambacho nchi yetu ilitakiwa ikijenge kipo mule.” State House Media, “Rais Dkt. John Magufuli.”

126 Fouéré, “Julius Nyerere;” Kwayu, “Different Uses of Nyerere;” Becker, “Remembering Nyerere.”

127 BBC, “Tanzanian Opposition;” O’Neill and Guinan, “Realising.”

128 I contacted @ClubMagufuli in April 2019 to enquire as to their true identity, but they wished to remain anonymous.

129 Original text: “#MATAGA MAKE TANZANIA GREAT AGAIN! Tanzania was great kabla mafisadi hawajaharibu nchi.” Translation by Dan Paget. @ClubMagufuli, “Tweet.”

130 Kimboy, “JPM to MPs.”

131 Ibid.

132 *Original text unavailable. Azam TV, “Hotuba ya Rais Magufuli.”

133 Magufuli, “Speech Officially Inaugurating.”

134 Lugongo, “JPM Urges Tanzanians.”

135 Fouéré, “Julius Nyerere.”

136 O’Neill and Guinan, “Realising.”

137 Dye, “Illiberal Modernizers.”

138 Simba, “Tweet.”

139 @NiSisiSisiTZ, “Tweet.”

140 *Original text: “Tanzania yenye maendeleo, Tanzania yenye sifa, Tanzania yenye neema inakuja, tumefanikiwa hili tutafanikiwa na mengine.” Ayo, “Mambo 7.”

141 Makana, “When President Magufuli Ordered State Officials.”

142 The Citizen, “No Food.”

143 Jacob and Pedersen, “New Resource Nationalism?”

144 The Guardian, “Revealed.”

145 Mohammed, “Tanzania President Urges.”

146 The Guardian, “Copper Concentrates Export Ban.”

147 BBC, “Tanzanian Opposition.”

148 News24, “Donors Cut Aid.”

149 *Original text unavailable. Azam TV, “Hotuba ya Rais Magufuli.”

150 Kamndaya, “It’s a ‘Tanzania First’ Budget.”

151 Makulilo, “Unleveled Playfield.”

152 Paget, “Shrinking Space and Opposition Protest.”

153 Pedersen and Jacob, “Political Settlements.”

154 Nwamkahe, “Magufuli Reaffirms Commitment.”

155 Phillips, “Pater Rules Best;” Schneider, “Freedom and Unfreedom.”

156 The Citizen, “Magufuli: We’ll Negotiate.”

157 Taylor, “Be Careful, Watch It!”

158 Ibid.

159 Lugongo, “JPM: Mind your Tongues.”

160 Kimboy, “JPM to MPs.”

161 The Guardian. “Magufuli Warns.”

162 Pedersen and Jacob, “Political Settlements.”

163 Kamagi. “Govt Admits.”

164 The Citizen. “Lissu Charged.”

165 Macdonald, “Age and Gender Voting,” 51; Schneider, “Freedom and Unfreedom.”

166 Paget, “Shrinking Space and Opposition Protest;” Pedersen and Jacob, “Political Settlements.”

167 Urbinati, Me the People.

168 BBC, “Tanzanian Opposition;” VoA, “Former Tanzania;” O’Neill and Guinan, “Realising.”

169 O’Neill and Guinan, “Realising.”

170 Al Jazeera, “Tanzania President Questions.”

171 Ramaphosa, “2018 State of the Nation.”

172 Ibid.

173 Dorman, Understanding Zimbabwe.

174 Ibid.

175 Tendi, “The Motivations and Dynamics,” 51 and 54–5.

176 Ibid., 54–5.

177 Beardsworth, Cheeseman and Tinhu, “Zimbabwe,” 5 and 17.

178 I am entirely indebted to Calum Fisher for this example.

179 York, “The Cult.”

180 Smith, “Malawi President.”

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Dan Paget

Dan Paget is a Lecturer in Politics at the University of Aberdeen. He completed his doctorate at the University of Oxford in 2018. Dan’s current research falls into two tranches. The first lies at the juncture of political communication and comparative politics. He argues that election campaigns vary in their rally-intensiveness. He examines what makes campaigns rally-intensive and how parties electioneer in such campaign ecologies. He is currently writing a monograph based on this research. The second tranche concerns political discourse, of which this paper is a part. He has previously taught at University College London, the University of Oxford, and the School of Oriental and African Studies.

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