The novel targets for anti-angiogenesis of genistein on human cancer cells
Introduction
Angiogenesis, the generation of new blood vessels, is required for the growth as well as expansion of solid tumors, especially those at 1–2 mm in diameter [1]. The initiation of this vascular phase marks a period of accelerated growth, local invasion, and, ultimately, metastasis of epithelial neoplasm. The prognostic importance of estimating the degree of angiogenesis in patients with carcinoma, including bladder cancer, supports the hypothesis that tumor angiogenesis is imperative in the development and progression of human cancer [2]. Hence, therapeutic agents are being devised either to interrupt the pathogenic steps of tumor angiogenesis or to directly destroy the tumor vasculature. Currently, chemicals that can cut off the tumor's blood supply, so-called angiogenesis inhibitors, are considered one of the most promising anticancer therapies.
A number of epidemiological studies show that the consumption of soy products may have a protective effect against human cancers of the breast, colon, or prostate in the Far East Asia [3], [4]. The beneficial effects of a traditional Japanese diet are thought to come from isoflavones, the plant pigments found in soybeans. Experiments both in vitro and in vivo for bladder cancer have supported the notion that isoflavonoids, flavonoids, or lignans are able to suppress tumor growth [5], [6], [7], [8]. We also found that isoflavone compounds tend to have a dose-dependent growth inhibition on human bladder cancer cells in vitro and a tumor suppressor effect in vivo [9]. It is interesting to note that the cooperative action of a mixture of isoflavone compounds generates greater anti-tumorigenic effects than any single compound does, and that the IC50 values of most cancer cell lines (3–5 μg/ml or 7.9–13.2 μM) are within the reach of the urine levels of daidzein (7,4′-dihydroxyisoflavone) (14.7 μM), and genistein (5,7,4′-trihydroxyisoflavone) (8.4 μM) following a soy challenge [10]. Nevertheless, genistein is one of the most potent soy isoflavones. These results have produced the hypothesis that soy isoflavones, especially the genistein, may be practical chemopreventives for human urinary tract cancer.
It is well-known that angiogenic activity can be detected in the urine of patients with bladder cancer [11], [12]. In cases of flat dysplasia or non-invasive transitional cell carcinoma, there are also increased numbers of sub-urothelial capillaries, suggesting the existence of an angiogenic stimulus in the early stage of bladder tumorigenesis [13]. For this reason, bladder cancer is a particularly good paradigm to use for investigating anti-angiogenic agents. Many molecules released by tumor and host cells are known to play a role in tumor angiogenesis, and the final outcome in vivo depends on the net balance between positive (angiogenic factors) and negative (angiogenesis inhibitors) regulatory elements. Factors known to be involved in human bladder carcinogenesis include (1) angiogenic growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) [14], [15], [16] and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) [17], [18]; (2) other pro-angiogenic factors, such as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) [19], [20], [21] and tissue factor (TF) [22]; (3) matrix-degrading enzymes, such as urokinase- and tissue-type plasminogen activator (uPA and tPA) [23], [24], [25], [26], the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], and their activator of transmembrane MMP (MT-MMP) [34]; and (4) angiogenesis inhibitors, such as tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2) [28], [29], [30], [33], plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) [35], and thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1) [15], [36], angiostatin [37], and endostatin. A number of biochemical targets and pharmacological actions have been proposed [38], [39], and anti-angiogenesis is one of the important mechanisms responsible for anti-cancer effects of soy isoflavones [5], [7], [40], [41]. Despite of the fact that in vitro anti-angiogenic mechanisms of genistein have been described in several cancer models, the information is far from complete. Using human bladder cancer as a paradigm, we performed this study to identify the molecular basis, especially the novel targets, for anti-angiogenesis of genistein in the range of urine excretion.
Section snippets
Cell culture
The E6 cell line was an immortalized human uroepithelium [42]. Human bladder cancer cell lines RT4 (grade 1 bladder cancer), J82 (grade 3 bladder cancer), 5637 (grade 3 bladder cancer), and T24 (grade 3 bladder cancer) were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (Rockville, MD). TSGH8301 (grade 2 bladder cancer) was established locally and has been reported in detail previously [43]. The E6 cells were grown in F12 medium (GIBCO BRL), the RT4 cells in McCoy's 5A medium (GIBCO BRL),
Results
First, we used a previously described xenograft model to evaluate the direct anti-angiogenic effect of isoflavones on bladder cancer cells [9]. A significantly reduced MVD of TSGH8301 cells in SCID mice was observed at 10 μg/ml genistein (50.7 ± 4.0/mm2) or 10 μg/ml isoflavone mixture (28.4 ± 5.3/mm2) (P < 0.0001 by ANOVA, respectively) (Fig. 1A). The difference between treatment groups and the controls (70.2 ± 7.6/mm2) was also statistically significant (P < 0.001). The mean area of individual vessels
Discussion
Tumorigenesis of the human bladder is a multi-step and multifocal (field effect) process, possibly involving the spread of pre-malignant clones along the urothelial mucosa. As a result, human bladder cancer is uniquely suited to the development of chemoprevention, in which noncytotoxic drugs or nutrients are used to prevent, retard, or delay carcinogenesis. In this study, we demonstrated that both a cocktail mixture of isoflavones or genistein by itself drastically inhibit angiogenesis in vivo,
Acknowledgements
This study is supported by research grants NSC 89-2320-B-006-095 and NSC 90-2320-B-006-095 from the National Science Council, and MOE Program for Promoting Academic Excellent of Universities (grant number 91-B-FA09 -1-4), TAIWAN.
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