Introduction
In mammalian cells the methylation status of cytosine is inherited epigenetically during DNA replication (
Holliday, 1993). Such DNA methylation is involved in a variety of biological processes such as gene silencing (
Bird and Wolffe, 1999), mutation (
Gonzalgo and Jones, 1997), development (
Li et al., 1992) and cancer (
Laird and Jaenisch, 1994;
Laird et al., 1995;
Jones, 1996;
Schmutte and Jones, 1998). Abnormal methylation patterns are often observed in cancer cells (
Baylin et al., 1998;
Costello et al., 2000). Such events may result from the failure of a control mechanism for the major DNA methyltransferase, Dnmt1, during the cell cycle. DNA methylation in mammalian cells is maintained during the S phase of the cell cycle by Dnmt1 (
Leonhardt et al., 1992), a 184 kDa protein consisting of a regulatory (N‐terminal) and a catalytic (C‐terminal) domain (
Figure 1A) (
Bestor et al., 1988;
Yen et al., 1992). Both domains are fused by a run of 13 alternating Gly–Lys residues and can be cleaved by proteolysis of the intact enzyme with V8 protease (
Bestor, 1992). A cluster of eight cysteinyl residues (CX
2CX
2 CX
4CX
2CX
2), which has been shown to bind zinc ions, lies in the center of the N‐terminal domain (
Bestor, 1992). Another part of the N‐terminal domain has been implicated in co‐localizing the murine Dnmt1 with the replication machinery (
Leonhardt et al., 1992). A short peptide region (TRQTTITSHFAKG) of hDnmt1 has been found to bind proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) (
Chuang et al., 1997). Recently, two other regions (amino acids 653–730 and 686–812) have been shown to associate with histone deacetylase, HDAC1 (
Fuks et al., 2000).
The retinoblastoma gene product, Rb, is a major cell cycle regulator nuclear phosphoprotein of ∼110 kDa. It contains three pockets, A, B and C, which bind to a variety of cellular and regulatory proteins (
Taya, 1997). Rb has the ability to suppress cell proliferation via cell cycle‐dependent phosphorylation (
Weinberg, 1995). It has been established that the growth‐suppressing activity of Rb is exerted by binding and inhibiting the transcription factor E2F (
Nevins, 1992;
La Thangue, 1994). Rb also recruits HDAC1 to E2F and cooperates with it to repress the E2F‐regulated promoter of the gene encoding the cell cycle protein cyclin E (
Brehm et al., 1998;
Luo et al., 1998;
Magnaghi‐Jaulin et al., 1998). In several cancer cells, including retinoblastoma, osteosarcoma, small‐cell lung cancer and bladder cancer, inactivation of the gene for tumor suppressor proteins, such as Rb, via mutation, deletion or methylation, has been observed (
Weinberg, 1991;
Ohtani‐Fujita et al., 1997).
In this study we have investigated the possible communication between hDnmt1, the human maintenance methyltransferase and the tumor suppressor gene product Rb. Our results show a physical interaction between hDnmt1 and Rb. Rb is also shown to compete with the assembly of the intermediate DNA–hDnmt1 binary complex that precedes DNA methylation, suggesting a role in hypomethylation of the cellular DNA in vivo. A novel mechanism in which Rb modulates hDnmt1 activity is discussed.
Discussion
Defects in mammalian methylation patterns have severe consequences for cell survival, gene expression and development, as evident in the embryonic lethality of homozygous deletions of the mouse
Dnmt1 gene (
Li et al., 1992). Altered patterns of DNA methylation are often observed in cancer cells. In these cells, despite a decrease in overall DNA methylation (
Gama‐Sosa et al., 1983), the normally unmethylated CpG islands in the promoter region of crucial genes are densely methylated, resulting in transcriptional silencing. It is estimated that 600 out of 45 000 CpG islands are highly methylated in human tumors (
Costello et al., 2000). This epigenetic coding region modification may accompany, and potentially cause, a loss of tumor suppressor gene function (
Laird and Jaenisch, 1994;
Jones, 1996), including p16, p15, VHL and E‐cad. Each gene can be partially reactivated by demethylation using drugs, such as 5‐aza‐2′‐deoxycytidine. It is hypothesized that in neoplastic cells the protective mechanism from abnormal methylation is lost, possibly by excess exposure to Dnmt1. An increase in methyltransferase activity was found to be target cell specific and proposed to be an early event in lung cancer (
Belinsky et al., 1996). Furthermore, induced overexpression of Dnmt1 in human fibroblast tissue culture cells has been shown to induce hypermethylation of CpG islands and cellular transformation (
Vertino et al., 1996).
Mammalian DNA methylation is a complex phenomenon. For correct methylation of the vertebrate genome, several protein factors and methyltransferases must work together in harmony. The major maintenance methyltransferase, Dnmt1, is evolutionarily conserved in mouse, human,
Xenopus and sea urchin, suggesting a similar functional role. During DNA replication, Dnmt1 is located at the replication foci and methylates the newly synthesized daughter strands. PCNA, an auxiliary factor, facilitates loading of δ and ϵ DNA polymerases onto the replication foci in cycling cells.
Chuang et al. (1997) have suggested that binding of hDnmt1 to PCNA, coordinates methyltransferase activity with DNA replication, and further that this binding is negatively regulated by p21. This regulation can be attributed, at least in part, to the mutually exclusive binding of p21 and hDnmt1 to PCNA. Results presented here suggest that binding of Rb to hDnmt1 will block binding of PCNA. Thus, an altered protein–protein interaction between hDnmt1 and various regulatory proteins might disrupt enzymatic function.
In our interaction studies we have identified the first 336 amino acids of hDnmt1 as the region that interacts with Rb using three biologically active (methylation‐proficient) proteins: full‐length hDnmt1 and deletion derivatives hΔ336Dnmt1 and hΔ541Dnmt1. Further N‐terminal deletion of hDnmt1 beyond amino acid 580 abolishes methylation activity even when the catalytic domain remains, a result attributed to misfolding (
Zimmermann et al., 1997). Due to the potential for global misfolding, deletions beyond this point were not used in this study. Previous studies (
Robertson et al., 2000) have suggested that an alternative region of hDnmt1 (amino acids 416–913) interacts with Rb, based on experiments that utilized
in vitro translated C‐terminal deletions of hDnmt1 and GST–Rb fusion proteins. This region includes HDAC1 binding (amino acids 653–812) (
Fuks et al., 2000). Thus, it is possible that another protein factor might have mediated Rb binding on hDnmt1. In contrast, we have used proteins expressed
in vivo for interaction studies. We have also performed GST pull‐down assays with GST–fusion fragments of hDnmt1. Only the fusion protein containing hDnmt1 peptide 1–334 amino acids was able to bind Rb. Along with a yeast two‐hybrid assay and two different GST pull‐down assays, our data indicate that the first 334 amino acids are indeed involved in the interaction with Rb.
An association between increased DNA methyltransferase activity and early events leading towards the establishment of a transformed state is documented in human cells (
Kuerbitz and Baylin, 1996) and in a strain of mice genetically susceptible to lung carcinogenesis (
Belinsky et al., 1996). In human colon cancer, the hDnmt1 transcript is present in 1.5‐ to 4‐fold higher amounts than that in normal colon tissue (
Lee et al., 1996;
Schmutte et al., 1996). Hypomethylation was also associated with a reduced number of intestinal adenomas in mice (
Laird et al., 1995). Thus, the regulation of hDnmt1 appears to be an important step in cancer progression. A simple model for the effect noted here envisages Rb acting in normal cells to regulate Dnmt1 being loaded at the replication foci. Conversely, the aberrant methylation patterns noted in tumors may result from alterations in Rb or the Rb pathway (
Figure 6), alterations also noted in almost all tumor cell lines (
Hanahan and Weinberg, 2000;
Guan et al., 2001). Our results indicate that Rb binds to hDnmt1 and that this association can inhibit methyltransfer activity. It is not presently known if Rb alone is sufficient to modulate Dnmt1 activity or whether other transacting factors are involved
in vivo. For example, some evidence suggests that p21 can negatively regulate the PCNA–hDnmt1 complex in the normal cell, potentially playing an indirect role in modulating hDnmt1 activity (
Chuang et al., 1997).
Human Dnmt1 also participates in methylation‐independent gene silencing via transcriptional repression. Recently,
Robertson et al. (2000) have shown that complex formation between Dnmt1, Rb, E2F and HDAC1 represses transcription from E2F‐responsive promoters
in vivo. One aspect of this repression is thought to involve Dnmt1 and HDAC1 association (
Fuks et al., 2000), leading to the generation of deacetylated histones as well as an altered chromatin state, which in turn has the potential to recruit methyl DNA binding proteins at the newly replicated sites, forming a transcriptionally silenced chromatin. Indeed, co‐transfection of a human ARF promoter (
Robertson and Jones, 1998)‐driven reporter plasmid containing two GAL‐4 DNA binding sites along with GAL‐4Rb and hDnmt1, or GAL‐4 Dnmt1 and Rb, into human cells resulted in repression of reporter gene activity. In this assay, GAL‐4 Dnmt1 protein is targeted artificially into the GAL‐4 DNA binding sites of ARF promoter. However, re‐isolation and methylation analysis of the transfected ARF construct did not detect methylation (
Robertson et al., 2000). This shows that the hDnmt1–Rb complex is not effective methylation machinery
in vivo, supporting our observation. Results reported here show that Rb can sequester the available hDnmt1 and prevent the enzyme from binding to the substrate
in vitro. We suggest that such an interaction
in vivo may lead to loss of maintenance methylation on hemimethylated DNA. In fact, a point mutation on Rb (C706F) inhibits hDnmt1–Rb complex formation (
Robertson et al., 2000). Rb binding and regulating hDnmt1 is perhaps one of many mechanisms in which some sequences in the genome, like CpG islands, remain methylation free during normal cellular growth and development. However, during cancer progression, in the absence of Rb or hDnmt1 regulatory proteins, such sequences are methylated aberrantly.
Using steady‐state kinetic approaches and
in vitro inhibition studies with hDnmt1 and methylated DNA (
Bacolla et al., 2001), methylated DNA binding and allosteric activation domains have been shown to reside with the N‐terminal 501 amino acids. Here we show that the same region of hDnmt1 also binds to Rb. In conjunction with those studies, it was suggested that hDnmt1 enzymatic activity could be inhibited via interaction of the N‐terminal domain with binding proteins (
Bacolla et al., 2001), either directly or indirectly by interfering with allosteric activation. Our present studies suggest that Rb can play this role. In our previous studies with a series of mammalian–prokaryotic hybrid methyltransferases (
Pradhan and Roberts, 2000) we have shown that properties of the native Dnmt1 depend on elements located in the C‐terminal region, with interplay between regions both at the N‐ and C‐terminal amino acids being crucial. The binding of a protein factor to hDnmt1 has the potential to disrupt communication between the domains, thus producing the aberrant methylation pattern observed in cancer cells. Thus, Rb may play a dual regulatory role including both transcription of E2F‐responsive promoters and maintenance methylation at DNA replication via Rb–Dnmt1 interaction.