Ryan J Lynch

Of the available sources for Islamic history between the seventh and eighth centuries CE, few are of greater importance than al-Baladhuri’s Kitab Futuh al-buldan (The Book of the Conquest of Lands). Written in Arabic by a ninth-century Muslim scholar working at the court of the ‘Abbasid caliphs, the Futuh’s content covers many important matters at the beginning of Islamic history. It informs its audience of the major events of the early Islamic conquests, the settlement of Muslims in the conquered territories and their experiences therein, and the origins and development of the early Islamic state. Questions over the text’s construction, purpose, and reception, however, have largely been ignored in current scholarship. This is despite both the text’s important historical material and its crucial early date of creation. It has become commonplace for researchers to turn to the Futuh for information on a specific location or topic, but to ignore the grander – and, in many ways, more straightforward – questions over the text’s creation and limitations. This book corrects these gaps in knowledge by investigating the context, form, construction, content, and early reception history of al-Baladhuri’s text.

While there is growing historiographical analysis of the reuse of circulating narrative materials in medieval books from various textual traditions, there have been fewer studies of the late antique and early medieval periods that have considered the process of authorial self-revision. This is especially the case with early Arabic/Islamicate texts.

This study is a discussion of the historical material that is reused in the two surviving Arabic works of the Muslim author al-Balādhurī (d. ca. 892 CE/279 AH), material which appears in his Kitāb Futūḥ al-buldān (The Book of the Conquest of Lands) and that was apparently reused in his Ansāb al-Ashrāf (The Lineage of Nobles). In discussing how al-Balādhurī recycled this information and emplotted it in verbatim and near-verbatim forms, it shows how shifting the location of these shared traditions demonstrates the different goals of his two books and also showcases his work as an author: in the former, he places an emphasis on the creation of early Islamic institutions; in the later, he eulogizes the character and qualities of Islam’s earliest leaders. Additionally, all of the reused material discussed here was identified through computer meditated analysis, so this study also highlights how the tools of the digital and computational humanities demonstrate immense promise in enhancing and expediting the research of scholars across the medieval globe.

You can find a copy of this paper here on my Humanities Commons page here: https://hcommons.org/deposits/item/hc:33417/

This article is concerned with the historical memory of late antique and early medieval Caucasia, including the territories of Armenia and Arran (often referred to as "Caucasian Albania"). While a contested area between the influence of Byzantium and the Caliphate during the seventh-tenth centuries CE, it was a region with a long history as a liminal space.

This paper primarily serves as an analysis of important early Islamic writings on the political, administrative, and social policies in the area during this period by early Abbasid-era scholars. In particular, it focuses on the accounts provided by the Abbasid secretary al-Baladhuri (d. ca. 892 CE) in his chapter on "The Conquest of Armenia" in the Kitab Futuh al-Buldan ("The Book of the Conquests of Lands").

During the early Islamic period Cyprus was a frontier territory unlike most—control, influence, and tax revenue over the island were shared mutually by both the Byzantine and Islamic states—and the historiographical record demonstrates that its legal and administrative status was fraught with challenges. The present study is based on the surviving Arabic material in Abū ʿUbayd al-Qāsim b. Sallām’s (d. 224/838) Kitāb al-Amwāl, subsequently transmitted in Kitāb Futūḥ al-buldān of al-Balādhurī (d. ca. 278/892). It argues that the problematic nature of Cyprus in this period, coupled with Abū ʿUbayd’s unprecedented access to genuine correspondence of jurists from the end of the eighth century, led the author to enshrine important documentary evidence that did not survive elsewhere. Furthermore, it suggests that the continued source-critical and comparative analysis of early Arabic narrative source material can still yield fruitful information for an understanding of the earliest centuries of Islamic history despite the sources’ many limitations.

The second Islamic civil war, or fitna, divided the early Islamic community from the years 680-692CE/60-73AH and had as one of its central figures the character of ‘Abd Allāh b. al-Zubayr.

He has long been treated in western scholarship as a usurper or “counter-Caliph” to the rightful leadership of the Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik b. Marwān. The extant Islamic sources, however, are divided in their depiction of him: some treat him as a pious and saintly combatant against Umayyad depravity, while others characterize him as self-indulgent, ruthless, and a pretender to the lineage of the Prophet Muḥammad.

Ibn al-Zubayr was the son of an established Companion of the Prophet, and had himself borne witness to the Prophet Muḥammad and his revelation as a young member of the new Islamic community. More importantly, he came from a family line that included not only other prestigious early Caliphs and converts, but also the wives of Muḥammad, Khadīja and ‘Aisha, and the grandfather of Muḥammad, ‘Abd al-Muṭṭalib.

Scholarship has largely ignored the questions surrounding his connection with the Prophet as well as this status as a legitimizing force in his establishment of power during the fitna, choosing often to focus on issues of sacred geography instead. This paper will concern itself with the rise to power of Ibn al-Zubayr and his Caliphate, and how he may have legitimized his right to rule over other rivals through his genealogical relationship with Muḥammad.

Keywords: Ibn al-Zubayr, Abd Allah b. al-Zubayr, Abdallah ibn al-Zubayr, Early Islamic History, fitna, second fitna, Umayyad history, Arabic historiography, Arabic genealogy, genealogy, Family of the Prophet, Prophet Muhammad, ahl al-bayt, Husayn ibn Ali, Husayn b. 'Ali, sons of the muhajirun

Khālid b. al-Walīd (d. 642CE/21AH) is among the most distinguished Arab commanders from  the period of the early Islamic conquests, and features prominently in the conquests of Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Syria. Among the most famous tales surrounding Khālid is the story of his desert march from Mesopotamia to Syria intending to relieve the Muslim armies there, during which he is said to have led an army on a dangerous five-day march across an extremely inhospitable desert.

This paper considers the Arabic tradition regarding Khālid's desert march. It suggests that it was likely a literary ploy by some - but not all - of the 'Abbasid-era historians working to make sense of the great many local traditions that remembered Khālid as their conqueror. In so doing, these historians attempted to synthesize the many accounts of the conquests of these regions into one cohesive narrative with Khālid at its center. They present the early Islamic conquests as an extremely organized, singular affair with deep caliphal oversite, while also promoting the image of Khālid as the ideal Muslim warrior.

Keywords: Khalid ibn al-Walid, Khalid b. al-Walid, Islamic historiography, Early Islamic Conquests, Early Islamic History

This paper analyzes a number of traditions contained within the early Arabic historical tradition regarding the policy of the Sasanian state in managing its northern Caucasian frontier during late antiquity.

While considering the content of these traditions and 'Abbasid-era memory of these policies, it also discusses their origins and their transmission in other Arabic geographic works. In doing so, the paper provides suggestions on not just the realities surrounding these particular memories, but on why this material was preserved in the surviving Arabic tradition at all.

Note: This paper was presented as part of the first workshop of the Oxford Nizami Ganjavi program, with the support of the Oxford Centre for Late Antiquity.

Keywords: Arabic historiography, medieval Islamic history, medieval caucasus, medieval azerbaijan, arran, late antiquity, early islamic history, abbasid history, abbasid sources, transmission of sources, al-baladhuri, ibn al-faqih al-hamadani, Ibn Khurradadhbih, Ibn Khurrdadbih, Kitab al-Masalik wa-al-Mamalik, Yaqut, futuh al-buldan, kitab al-buldan, sasanian history,

The Book of the Conquests of Lands (Kitāb Futūḥ al-Buldān) by the ninth century author al-Balādhurī is among the most important historical sources modern scholars have for the first centuries of the Islamic state. Owing to its information on the Islamic conquests and the administration of the realm, it is a source often mined for useful content on regions or topics concerning the seventh and eighth centuries CE; its popularity also benefitted greatly from an early translation into a western language. It is, however, often neglected as a single, more substantial work encompassing the breadth of the Islamic world in the early period. Despite modern scholars’ reliance on the book as a source of information for the Byzantine, Sasanian, and early Islamic near east, it has never before had a substantial scholarly study dedicated to the text as a whole, thereby neglecting the greater questions of its purpose and construction in favor of its content alone.

This paper considers the purpose of the Futūḥ against the backdrop of previous scholarship on the text; it challenges many of the preconceptions that have developed surrounding its genre. Additionally, it reflects over the intended audience of the work through a discussion of the text’s themes and foci, suggesting that its great emphasis on land ownership and issues of taxation meant it likely served some practical role at the court as an “administrator’s handbook.”

In particular, it discusses the problems associated with considering the text solely in the genre of "conquest literature." This is despite its overwhelming focus on administrative material and its geographic organization. It advises that considering the text within the framework of historiographical genres is deeply problematic, especially when these genres have rarely been well defined within the Islamic historical tradition.

The surviving works of the ninth/third century author al-Balādhurī are among the earliest and most important sources for the foundational period of early Islamic history. While they are regularly used for insight into the earliest centuries of the Islamic state, there have rarely been attempts to critically analyse the techniques involved in the construction of his work. Al-Balādhurī was writing from the court of the ‘Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad and at a time when the early Arabic historical tradition was at a crossroads. There were different approaches to learning, concerns over the authenticity and verification of material, and varying attitudes towards the written word and its role in the transmission of knowledge.

This paper discusses the construction of al-Balādhurī’s Kitāb Futūḥ al-Buldān (The Book of the Conquest of Lands) through an analysis of his chains of transmission and his selection of material. Through the creation of a database of the text’s named informants, it identifies the background and training of his primary teachers, providing insight into al-Balādhurī’s own education and the resources at his disposal. In particular, the paper argues that the author of the text had access to a variety of different sources – both oral and written – and that he chooses to differentiate his usage of this material in an abstract way.

By using al-Baladhuri's "Kitab Futuh al-Buldan" as a primary point of focus, this paper discusses how the commanders of the early Islamic conquest armies became tasked with the establishment and administration of the early Islamic state.  It focuses on how later medieval Muslim authors imagined the establishment of the early Islamic state, and suggests that many early Arabic texts which detail the conquests present them as being highly organized affairs with a great amount of control wielded by the central authority - the early Caliphs - at the expense of gubernatorial importance. Al-Baladhuri's text, however, is different in this regard, largely presenting the unfolding conquests from the perspective of these commanders and governors in the field, with the Caliph often allowing these men to exercise their good judgment in decision making as part of the process.

The Muslim scholar al-Balādhurī (d.ca. 892 CE), working from the court of several ‘Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad, lived and wrote in a period when the written Arabic historical tradition was at a crossroad. With the oral tradition receding and written texts becoming ever more prominent, the rise of legal writing and the compilation of hadith collections brought new challenges to how sources should be cited, recorded, and organized for certain audiences.

This paper re-evaluates the importance of al-Balādhurī’s Kitāb Futūḥ al-Buldān (The Book of the Conquest of Lands) in providing insight into the ninth century Arabic historical tradition. It engages with past scholarship on the text and the author over the last 150 years, and urges a reconsideration of the original intention of the text. It considers questions of how and why the author collected and selected the material he utilized in the text. It also considers the influence his position at the court may have had in this process, particularly in allowing him access to documents and informants in the 'Abbasid capital of Baghdad.

Keywords: al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan, Book of the Conquest of Lands, al-Balādhurī, source analysis, early Islamic historiography, arabic historiography, 'abbasid history, umayyad history

When the Muslim scholar al-Balādhurī (d.ca. 892 CE/279 AH) was constructing his Kitāb Futūḥ al-Buldān (The Book of the Conquest of Lands), the written Arabic historical tradition was still firmly within its infancy. The types of historical information that Muslim scholars were interested in could vary, but influence by a patron or the needs of the new Islamic community could often influence the content and thematic nature of an author’s work throughout the medieval period. For early authors such as al-Balādhurī, biographical information on the author and his intentions are often scarce, and modern scholars are left to answer important questions like purpose and audience primarily through the content and organization of the source itself. 

This paper briefly introduces the place of al-Balādhurī’s text within the framework of early Arabic historiography. It then considers the thematic content of the text as insight into the author’s intentions in its creation, discussing the work’s focus on administrative and judicial material embedded within the narrative of the Islamic conquests. It suggests that the text’s immense focus on matters such as land ownership and taxation recommends that it was likely written to serve a practical purpose as a form of “administrator’s handbook,” intended for those working in the court of the ‘Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad.

Keywords: al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan, al-Balādhurī, islamic historiography, court history, reception, audience

The second Islamic civil war, or fitna, divided the early Islamic community from the years 680-692CE/60-73AH and had as one of its central figures the character of ‘Abd Allāh b. al-Zubayr.

He has long been treated in western scholarship as a usurper or “counter-Caliph” to the rightful leadership of the Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik b. Marwān. The extant Islamic sources, however, are divided in their depiction of him: some treat him as a pious and saintly combatant against Umayyad depravity, while others characterize him as self-indulgent, ruthless, and a pretender to the lineage of the Prophet Muḥammad.

Ibn al-Zubayr was the son of an established Companion of the Prophet, and had himself borne witness to the Prophet Muḥammad and his revelation as a young member of the new Islamic community. More importantly, he came from a family line that included not only other prestigious early Caliphs and converts, but also the wives of Muḥammad, Khadīja and ‘Aisha, and the grandfather of Muḥammad, ‘Abd al-Muṭṭalib.

Scholarship has largely ignored the questions surrounding his connection with the Prophet as well as this status as a legitimizing force in his establishment of power during the fitna, choosing often to focus on issues of sacred geography instead. This paper will concern itself with the rise to power of Ibn al-Zubayr and his Caliphate, and how he may have legitimized his right to rule over other rivals through his genealogical relationship with Muḥammad."

*This paper was edited and published as a chapter in *The Long Seventh Century: Continuity and Discontinuity in an Age of Transition* (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2014) and can be found here: https://www.academia.edu/11228129/Sons_of_the_Muh%C4%81jir%C5%ABn_Some_comments_on_Ibn_al-Zubayr_and_Legitimizing_Power_in_Seventh-Century_Islamic_History

Keywords: Ibn al-Zubayr, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, Abdallah ibn al-Zubayr, Early Islamic History, fitna, second fitna, Umayyad history, Arabic historiography, Arabic genealogy, genealogy, Family of the Prophet, Prophet Muhammad, ahl al-bayt, Husayn ibn Ali, Husayn b. 'Ali

In the study of early Islamic history and literature, the figure of the Prophet Muḥammad and his closest associates and confidants loom large in the minds of both Muslims and other scholars worldwide. According to Islamic tradition, Muḥammad and these notables - who are traditionally referred to as “the Companions of the Prophet” – provided the foundations of Islam, beginning its spread from small communities in the west of the Arabian Peninsula to major influence over what is today the modern Middle East and beyond.
The actions and depictions of the Companions can and should be viewed as more than just historical personas, but as characters in a narrative who serve a number of important purposes; as “saintly” exempla who embody the ideals of what being a good Muslim meant to the author in his time; as the catalysts for outcomes – political, social, religious, and intellectual – contemporary to these authors and their audiences; and in more practical ways, as literary devices that can tie accounts together or provide prestige for towns and regions should they be linked with its conquest. This will be accomplished through an in-depth consideration of the life of one particular Companion, the Muslim commander Khālid b. al-Walīd.

"Attached is a schedule for "The Authors, Editors, and Audiences of Medieval Middle Eastern Texts" conference occurring at the University of Cambridge on 1-2 September.

Registration (including sandwich lunch, coffee/tea, and drinks on both days) is £5. Those wishing to attend are requested to register their interest at ryan.lynch @ pmb.ox.ac.uk (remove the spaces).