Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-skm99 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-28T07:43:38.949Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Power and Conviction

The Political Economy of Missionary Work in Colonial-Era Africa

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 February 2023

Frank-Borge Wietzke
Affiliation:
Institut Barcelona D'Estudis Internacionals

Summary

This Element engages with recent attempts by economists and political scientists to rigorously estimate impacts of missionary work in sub-Saharan Africa. It argues that, although these efforts contribute to more accurate assessments of the 'true' effects of missionary presence, they also have a tendency to present Christian involvement in the region as a largely apolitical process, that was relatively unaffected by the rapidly evolving geopolitical and socio-cultural contexts of the colonial period. Countering this trend, this Element illustrates aspects of missionary behavior that were inherently more political and context-dependent, such as local struggles for religious hegemony between Protestants and Catholics and interactions between colonial regimes and the church-based provision of goods like education. The Element draws heavily on market-based theories of organized religious behavior. These perspectives are entirely compatible with the analytical language of economists and political scientists. Yet, they played surprisingly limited roles in recent literature on missionary impacts.
Get access
Type
Element
Information
Online ISBN: 9781108982672
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 02 March 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abernethey, David B. 2000. The Dynamics of Global Dominance: European Overseas Empires, 1415–1980. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Acemoglu, Daron, Johnson, Simon, and Robinson, James A.. 2002. “Reversal of Fortune: Geography and Institutions in the Making of the Modern World Income Distribution.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 117(4): 1231–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ajayi, J. F. Ade. 1965. Christian Missions in Nigeria, 1841–1891. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Ajayi, J. F. Ade, and Crowder, Michael. 1985. Historical Atlas of Africa. Harlow: Longman.Google Scholar
Alesina, Alberto, Hohmann, Sebastian, Michalopoulos, Stelios, and Papaioannou, Elias. 2021. “Intergenerational Mobility in Africa.” Econometrica 89(1): 135.Google Scholar
Amasyali, Emre. 2022. “Indigenous Responses to Protestant Missionaries: Educational Competition and Economic Development in Ottoman Turkey.” European Journal of Sociology 63(1): 3986.Google Scholar
Austin, Gareth. 2004. Markets with, without, and in Spite of States: West Africa in the Pre-Colonial Nineteenth Century. London: Department of Economic History, London School of Economics.Google Scholar
Ayandele, Emmanuel Ayankanmi. 1966. The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria, 1842–1914. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Balthazar, Joseph, and Kieffer, Michel. 1985. “Bishop Francis Xavier Vogt, (1870–1943): A True Disciple of Father Libermann.” Spiritan Papers 19: 3147.Google Scholar
Barro, Robert J., and McCleary, Rachel M.. 2005. “Which Countries Have State Religions?The Quarterly Journal of Economics 120(4): 1331–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barthel, Diane. 1985. “Women’s Educational Experience under Colonialism: Toward a Diachronic Model.” Signs 11(1): 137–54.Google Scholar
Bastian, Misty L. 2000. “Young Converts: Christian Missions, Gender and Youth in Onitsha, Nigeria 1880–1929.” Anthropological Quarterly 73(3): 145–58.Google Scholar
Baten, Joerg, de Haas, Michiel, Kempter, Elisabeth, and Selhausen, Felix Meier zu. 2021. “Educational Gender Inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Long-Term Perspective.” Population and Development Review 47(3): 813–49.Google Scholar
Beach, Harlan P. 1903. A Geography and Atlas of Protestant Missions: Their Environment, Forces, Distribution, Methods, Problems, Results and Prospects at the Opening of the Twentieth Century. Vol II. New York: Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions.Google Scholar
Becker, Sascha O., and Woessmann, Ludger. 2008. “Luther and the Girls: Religious Denomination and the Female Education Gap in Nineteenth-Century Prussia.” The Scandinavian Journal of Economics 110(4): 777805.Google Scholar
Becker, Sascha O., and Woessmann, Ludger 2009. “Was Weber Wrong? A Human Capital Theory of Protestant Economic History.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 124(2): 531–96.Google Scholar
Beidelman, Thomas O. 1974. “Social Theory and the Study of Christian Missions in Africa.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 44(3): 235–49.Google Scholar
Berger, Peter L. 1963. “A Market Model for the Analysis of Ecumenicity.” Social Research 30(1): 7793.Google Scholar
Berger, Peter L. 1969. The Social Reality of Religion. London: Faber.Google Scholar
Berman, Edward H. 1974. “African Responses to Christian Mission Education.” African Studies Review 17(3): 527–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boahen, Adu A. 1989. “New Trends and Processes in Africa in the Nineteenth Century.” In General History of Africa, Volume VI: Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s, ed. Ade Ajayi, J. F.. Paris: UNESCO, 4063.Google Scholar
Bolt, Jutta, and Bezemer, Dirk. 2009. “Understanding Long-Run African Growth: Colonial Institutions or Colonial Education?Journal of Development Studies 45(1): 2454.Google Scholar
Cage, Julia, and Rueda, Valeria. 2016. “The Long-Term Effects of the Printing Press in Sub-Saharan Africa.” American Economic Journal-Applied Economics 8(3): 6999.Google Scholar
Cage, Julia, and Rueda, Valeria 2020. “Sex and the Mission: The Conflicting Effects of Early Christian Missions on HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Journal of Demographic Economics 86(3): 213–57.Google Scholar
Caicedo, Felipe Valencia. 2018. “The Mission: Human Capital Transmission, Economic Persistence, and Culture in South America.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 134(1): 507–56.Google Scholar
Chesnut, Andrew. 2003. Competitive Spirits: Latin America’s New Religious Economy. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clignet, Remi P., and Foster, Philip J.. 1964. “French and British Colonial Education in Africa.” Comparative Education Review 8(2): 191–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cogneau, Denis, and Moradi, Alexander. 2014. “Borders that Divide: Education and Religion in Ghana and Togo since Colonial Times.” The Journal of Economic History 74(3): 694729.Google Scholar
Comaroff, Jean, and Comaroff, John. 1993. Modernity and Its Malcontents: Ritual and Power in Postcolonial Africa. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Comaroff, John, and Comaroff, Jean. 2021. “The Colonization of Consciousness.” In Critical Readings in the History of Christian Mission, Volume 2, ed. Frederiks, Martha and Nagy, Dorottya. Leiden: Brill, 447–68.Google Scholar
Michiel, De Haas, and Frankema, Ewout. 2018. “Gender, Ethnicity, and Unequal Opportunity in Colonial Uganda: European Influences, African Realities, and the Pitfalls of Parish Register Data.” The Economic History Review 71(3): 965–94.Google Scholar
Depetris-Chauvin, Emilio, and Weil, David N.. 2018. “Malaria and Early African Development: Evidence from the Sickle Cell Trait.” The Economic Journal 128(610): 1207–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donaldson, Dave, and Storeygard, Adam. 2016. “The View from Above: Applications of Satellite Data in Economics.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 30(4): 171–98.Google Scholar
Dupraz, Yannick. 2019. “French and British Colonial Legacies in Education: Evidence from the Partition of Cameroon.” The Journal of Economic History 79(3): 628–68.Google Scholar
Easton, David. 1959. “Political Anthropology.” Biennial Review of Anthropology 1: 210–62.Google Scholar
Ellis, Stephen, and Haar, Gerrie ter. 2004. Worlds of Power: Religious Thought and Political Practice in Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Feldmann, Horst. 2016. “The Long Shadows of Spanish and French Colonial Education.” Kyklos 69(1): 3264.Google Scholar
Finke, Roger, and Stark, Rodney. 1988. “Religious Economies and Sacred Canopies: Religious Mobilization in American Cities, 1906.” American Sociological Review 53(1): 4149.Google Scholar
Fortes, Meyer, and Evans-Pritchard, Edward Evan. 1940. African Political Systems. London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.Google Scholar
Frankema, Ewout. 2012. “The Origins of Formal Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Was British Rule More Benign?European Review of Economic History 16(4): 335–55.Google Scholar
Frederiks, Martha, and Nagy, Dorottya. 2021. Critical Readings in the History of Christian Mission, Volume 2. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Gallego, Francisco A., and Woodberry, Robert. 2010. “Christian Missionaries and Education in Former African Colonies: How Competition Mattered.” Journal of African Economies 19(3): 294329.Google Scholar
Gauthier, François, and Martikainen, Tuomas. 2018. “Introduction: The Marketization of Religion.” Religion 48(3): 361–66.Google Scholar
Githige, Renison Muchiri. 1982. “The Mission State Relationship in Colonial Kenya: A Summary.” Journal of Religion in Africa 13(2): 110–25.Google Scholar
Good, Charles M. 1991. “Pioneer Medical Missions in Colonial Africa.” Social Science & Medicine 32(1): 110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grier, Robin. 1997. “The Effect of Religion on Economic Development: A Cross National Study of 63 Former Colonies.” Kyklos 50(1): 4762.Google Scholar
Grossman, Guy. 2015. “Renewalist Christianity and the Political Saliency of LGBTs: Theory and Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa.” The Journal of Politics 77(2): 337–51.Google Scholar
Groves, Charles P. 1969. “Missionary and Humanitarian Aspects of Imperialism from 1870.” In Colonialism in Africa 1870–1960, Volume 1: The History and Politics of Colonialism, 1870–1914, ed. Gann, Lewis H. and Duignan, Peter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 462–96.Google Scholar
Guiso, Luigi, Sapienza, Paola, and Zingales, Luigi. 2006. “Does Culture Affect Economic Outcomes?Journal of Economic Perspectives 20(2): 2348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hastings, Adrian. 1996. The Church in Africa, 1450–1950. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Helmke, Gretchen, and Levitsky, Steven. 2004. “Informal Institutions and Comparative Politics: A Research Agenda.” Perspectives on Politics 2(4): 725–40.Google Scholar
Herbst, Jeffrey Ira. 2000. States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hodgson, Dorothy Louise. 2005. The Church of Women: Gendered Encounters between Maasai and Missionaries. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Horton, Robin. 1971. “African Conversion.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 41(2): 85108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Höschele, Stefan. 2010. “From Mission Comity to Interdenominational Relations: The Development of the Adventist Statement on Relationships with Other Christian Churches.” In Exploring the Frontiers of Faith: Festschrift in Honour of Dr. Jan Paulsen, ed. Schantz, Borge and Bruinsma, Reinder. Lueneburg: Advent-Verlag, 389404.Google Scholar
Huillery, Elise. 2009. “History Matters: The Long-Term Impact of Colonial Public Investments in French West Africa.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 1(2): 176215.Google Scholar
Hunt, Nancy Rose. 1990. “Domesticity and Colonialism in Belgian Africa: Usumbura’s Foyer Social, 1946–1960.” Signs 15(3): 447–74.Google Scholar
Iannaccone, Laurence. 1991. “The Consequences of Religious Market Structure.” Rationality and Society 3: 156–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jedwab, Remi, zu Selhausen, Felix Meier, and Moradi, Alexander. 2021. “Christianization without Economic Development: Evidence from Missions in Ghana.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 190: 573–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jedwab, Remi 2022. “The Economics of Missionary Expansion: Evidence from Africa and Implications for Development.” Journal of Economic Growth 27(2): 149–92.Google Scholar
Jennings, Michael. 2013. “Common Counsel, Common Policy: Healthcare, Missions and the Rise of the ‘Voluntary Sector’ in Colonial Tanzania.” Development and Change 44(4): 939–63.Google Scholar
Johnson, Hildegard Binder. 1967. “The Location of Christian Missions in Africa.” Geographical Review 57(2): 168202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kitaev, Igor. 1999. Private Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Re-Examination of Theories and Concepts Related to Its Development and Finance. Paris: UNESCO.Google Scholar
Goldewijk, Klein, Kees, Arthur Beusen, Gerard, van Drecht, and Martine, de Vos. 2011. “The HYDE 3.1 Spatially Explicit Database of Human-Induced Global Land-Use Change Over the Past 12,000 Years.” Global Ecology and Biogeography 20(1): 7386.Google Scholar
Landau, Paul Stuart. 1995. The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in a Southern African Kingdom. London: James Currey.Google Scholar
Lankina, Tomila, and Getachew, Lullit. 2012. “Mission or Empire, Word or Sword? The Human Capital Legacy in Postcolonial Democratic Development.” American Journal of Political Science 56(2): 465–83.Google Scholar
Lankina, Tomila, and Getachew, Lullit 2013. “Competitive Religious Entrepreneurs: Christian Missionaries and Female Education in Colonial and Post-Colonial India.” British Journal of Political Science 43(1): 103–31.Google Scholar
Latourette, Kenneth Scott. 1963. “Ecumenical Beginnings in Protestant World Mission: A History of Comity. By R. Pierce Beaver. New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1962. 356 pp.” Journal of Church and State 5(1): 113–14.Google Scholar
Leach, Fiona. 2008. “African Girls, Nineteenth‐Century Mission Education and the Patriarchal Imperative.” Gender and Education 20(4): 335–47.Google Scholar
Lloyd, Peter C. 1965. “The Political Structure of African Kingdoms: An Exploratory Model.” In Political Systems and the Distribution of Power, ed. Banton, Michael. London: Routledge, 63112.Google Scholar
Markowitz, Marvin D. 1973. Cross and Sword: The Political Role of Christian Missions in the Belgian Congo, 1908–1960. Stanford, Cal: Hoover Institution Press.Google Scholar
McCauley, John F. 2017. The Logic of Ethnic and Religious Conflict in Africa. Cambridge: University of California Press.Google Scholar
McCleary, Rachel M., and Barro, Robert J.. 2019. “Protestants and Catholics and Educational Investment in Guatemala.” In Advances in the Economics of Religion, ed. Jean-Paul Carvalho, Sriya Iyer, and Jared Rubin. Cham: Springer International, 169–95.Google Scholar
McClendon, Gwyneth H., and Riedl, Rachel Beatty. 2019. From Pews to Politics: Religious Sermons and Political Participation in Africa. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Meier zu Selhausen, Felix. 2014. “Missionaries and Female Empowerment in Colonial Uganda: New Evidence from Protestant Marriage Registers, 1880–1945.” Economic History of Developing Regions 29(1): 74112.Google Scholar
Meier zu Selhausen, Felix, and Weisdorf, Jacob. 2016. “A Colonial Legacy of African Gender Inequality? Evidence from Christian Kampala, 1895–2011.” The Economic History Review 69(1): 229–57.Google Scholar
Michalopoulos, Stelios, and Papaioannou, Elias. 2020. “Historical Legacies and African Development.” Journal of Economic Literature 58(1): 53128.Google Scholar
Mkenda, Festo. 2016. “Jesuits and Africa.” In Oxford Handbooks Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mkenda, Festo 2018. “A Protestant Verdict on the Jesuit Missionary Approach in Africa: David Livingstone and Memories of the Early Jesuit Presence in South Central Africa.” In Encounters between Jesuits and Protestants in Africa, eds. Maryks, Robert Aleksander and Festo Mkenda, S.J.. Leiden, NL: Brill, 5980.Google Scholar
Montgomery, Max. 2017. “Colonial Legacy of Gender Inequality: Christian Missionaries in German East Africa.” Politics & Society 45(2): 225–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murdock, George Peter. 1967. Ethnographic Atlas. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Murhula, Toussaint Kafarhire. 2018. “Jesuit–Protestant Encounters in Colonial Congo in the Late Nineteenth Century: Perceptions, Prejudices, and the Competition for African Souls.” In Encounters between Jesuits and Protestants in Africa, eds. Maryks, Robert Aleksander and Festo Mkenda, S.J.. Leiden, NL: Brill, 194214.Google Scholar
Nikolova, Elena, and Polansky, Jakub. 2020. “Conversionary Protestants Do Not Cause Democracy.” British Journal of Political Science 51(4), 17231733.Google Scholar
Nordhaus, William D. 2006. “Geography and Macroeconomics: New Data and New Findings.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103(10): 3510–17.Google Scholar
Nunn, Nathan. 2008. “The Long-Term Effects of Africa’s Slave Trades.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 123(1): 139–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nunn, Nathan 2010. “Religious Conversion in Colonial Africa.” American Economic Review 100(2): 147–52.Google Scholar
Nunn, Nathan 2014. “Gender and Missionary Influence in Colonial Africa.” In Africa’s Development in Historical Perspective, ed. Akyeampong, Emmanuel, Bates, Robert, Nunn, Nathan, and Robinson, James A.. New York: Cambridge University Press, 489512.Google Scholar
Okonkwo, Uche Uwaezuoke, and Ezeh, Mary-Noelle Ethel. 2008. “Implications of Missionary Education for Women in Nigeria: A Historical Analysis.” Journal of International Women’s Studies 10(2): 186–97.Google Scholar
Okoye, Dozie. 2021. “Things Fall Apart? Missions, Institutions, and Interpersonal Trust.” Journal of Development Economics 148: 102568.Google Scholar
Opoku, K. Asare. 1985. “Religion in Africa during the Colonial Era.” In General History of Africa, Volume 7: Africa under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935, ed. Boahen, A. Adu. Paris: UNESCO, 506–38.Google Scholar
Osterhammel, Juergen. 2014. The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Pawliková-Vilhanová, Viera. 2007. “Christian Missions in Africa and Their Role in the Transformation of African Societies.” Asian and African Studies 16(2): 249–60.Google Scholar
Pfisterer, H. 1933. “Der Wettbewerb Der Katholischen Mit Der Deutschen Evangelischen Mission.” Neue Allgemeine Missionszeitschrift 10 (2–6).Google Scholar
Pierskalla, Jan, Alexander, De Juan, and Montgomery, Max. 2019. “The Territorial Expansion of the Colonial State: Evidence from German East Africa 1890–1909.” British Journal of Political Science 49(2): 711–37.Google Scholar
Porta, Rafael La, Lopez-de-Silanes, Florencio, Shleifer, Andrei, and Vishny, Robert W.. 1997. “Trust in Large Organizations.” The American Economic Review 87(2): 333–38.Google Scholar
Porter, Andrew. 2004. Religion versus Empire? British Protestant Missionaries and Overseas Expansion, 1700–1914. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Putnam, Robert D. 1993. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Rabeson, Jocelyn. 2017. “Jesuits and Protestants in Nineteenth-Century Madagascar.” In Encounters between Jesuits and Protestants in Africa, eds. Maryks, Robert A., and Mkenda, Festo S.J. Leiden, NL: Brill, 169–93.Google Scholar
Ranger, Terence O. 1986. “Religious Movements and Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa.” African Studies Review 29(2): 169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ranger, Terence O. 1999. “‘Taking on the Missionary’s Task’: African Spirituality and the Mission Churches of Manicaland in the 1930s.” Journal of Religion in Africa 29(2): 175205.Google Scholar
Riedl, Rachel Beatty. 2017. “Sub-National–Cross-National Variation: Method and Analysis in Sub-Saharan Africa.” American Behavioral Scientist 61(8): 932–59.Google Scholar
Roberts, A. D. 2008. “Livingstone, David (1813–1873), Explorer and Missionary.” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-16803.Google Scholar
Roome, William. R. M. 1925. Ethnographic Survey of Africa: Showing the Tribes and Languages; Also the Stations of Missionary Societies. Edward Stanford Ltd.Google Scholar
Rosnes, Ellen Vea. 2017. “Christianisation, Frenchification and Malgachisation: Mission Education during War and Rebellion in French Colonial Madagascar in the 1940s.” History of Education 46(6): 747–67.Google Scholar
Smith, Adam. [1776] 1965. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. New York: Modern Library.Google Scholar
Smythe, Kathleen R. 2007. “African Women and White Sisters at the Karema Mission Station, 1894–1920.” Journal of Women’s History 19(2): 5984.Google Scholar
Sperber, Elizabeth Sheridan. 2017. “Deus Ex achina? New Religious Movements in African Politics. Unpublished Doctoral thesis. Columbia University, New York.. Available at: https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8474B61Google Scholar
Stanley, Brian. 1983. “‘Commerce and Christianity’: Providence Theory, the Missionary Movement, and the Imperialism of Free Trade, 1842–1860.The Historical Journal 26(1): 7194.Google Scholar
Stanley, Brian. 1990. The Bible and the Flag: Protestant Missions and British Imperialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Leicester, UK: Apollos.Google Scholar
Strayer, Robert. 1976. “Mission History in Africa: New Perspectives on an Encounter.” African Studies Review 19(1): 115.Google Scholar
Sundkler, Bengt, and Steed, Christopher. 2000. A History of the Church in Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Thornton, John Kelly. 1998. The Kongolese Saint Anthony: Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita and the Antonian Movement, 1684–1706. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tollefsen, Andreas Forø, Strand, Håvard, and Buhaug, Halvard. 2012. “PRIO-GRID: A Unified Spatial Data Structure.” Journal of Peace Research 49(2): 363–74.Google Scholar
Trejo, Guillermo. 2009. “Religious Competition and Ethnic Mobilization in Latin America: Why the Catholic Church Promotes Indigenous Movements in Mexico.” American Political Science Review 103(3): 323–42.Google Scholar
Waldinger, Maria. 2017. “The Long-Run Effects of Missionary Orders in Mexico.” Journal of Development Economics 127: 355–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallerstein, Immanuel. 1961. Africa: The Politics of Independence. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Wantchekon, Leonard, Klašnja, Marko, and Novta, Natalija. 2015. “Education and Human Capital Externalities: Evidence from Colonial Benin.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 130(2): 703–57.Google Scholar
Warner, R. Stephen. 1993. “Work in Progress Toward a New Paradigm for the Sociological Study of Religion in the United States.” American Journal of Sociology 98(5): 1044–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, Bob W. 1996. “Talk about School: Education and the Colonial Project in French and British Africa, (1860–1960).” Comparative Education 32(1): 925.Google Scholar
Wietzke, Frank-Borge. 2014. “Historical Origins of Uneven Service Supply in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Non-State Providers.” Journal of Development Studies 50(12): 1614–30.Google Scholar
Wietzke, Frank-Borge 2015. “Long-Term Consequences of Colonial Institutions and Human Capital Investments: Sub-National Evidence from Madagascar.” World Development 66: 293307.Google Scholar
Wodon, Quentin. 2020. “How Well Do Catholic and Other Faith-Based Schools Serve the Poor? A Study with Special Reference to Africa: Part II: Learning.” International Studies in Catholic Education 12(1): 320.Google Scholar
Woodberry, Robert D. 2004. “The Shadow of Empire: Christian Missions, Colonial Policy, and Democracy in Postcolonial Societies.” Unpublished Doctoral thesis. University of North Carolina.Google Scholar
Woodberry, Robert D. 2008. “Reclaiming the M-Word: The Legacy of Missions in Nonwestern Societies.” International Journal of Frontier Missiology 25(1): 1723.Google Scholar
Woodberry, Robert D. 2011. Ignoring the Obvious: What Explains Botswana’s Exceptional Democratic and Economic Performance in Sub-Saharan Africa. Project on Religion and Economic Change Working Paper No. 5.Google Scholar
Woodberry, Robert D. 2012. “The Missionary Roots of Liberal Democracy.” American Political Science Review 106(2): 244–74.Google Scholar
Wright, Marcia. 1971. “African History in the 1960’s: Religion.” African Studies Review 14(3): 439–45.Google Scholar
Young, Crawford. 1994. The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Zorn, Jean-Francois. 2012. “When French Protestants Replaced British Missionaries in the Pacific and Indian Oceans; or, How to Avoid the Colonial Trap.” In In God’s Empire: French Missionaries in the Modern World, ed. Daughton, J. P. and White, Owen. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Power and Conviction
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Power and Conviction
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Power and Conviction
Available formats
×