Non-water-ice constituents in the surface material of the icy Galilean satellites from the Galileo near-infrared mapping spectrometer investigation
T. B. McCord
Search for more papers by this authorG. B. Hansen
Search for more papers by this authorR. N. Clark
Search for more papers by this authorP. D. Martin
Search for more papers by this authorC. A. Hibbitts
Search for more papers by this authorF. P. Fanale
Search for more papers by this authorJ. C. Granahan
Search for more papers by this authorD. L. Matson
Search for more papers by this authorT. V. Johnson
Search for more papers by this authorR. W. Carlson
Search for more papers by this authorW. D. Smythe
Search for more papers by this authorG. E. Danielson
Search for more papers by this authorT. B. McCord
Search for more papers by this authorG. B. Hansen
Search for more papers by this authorR. N. Clark
Search for more papers by this authorP. D. Martin
Search for more papers by this authorC. A. Hibbitts
Search for more papers by this authorF. P. Fanale
Search for more papers by this authorJ. C. Granahan
Search for more papers by this authorD. L. Matson
Search for more papers by this authorT. V. Johnson
Search for more papers by this authorR. W. Carlson
Search for more papers by this authorW. D. Smythe
Search for more papers by this authorG. E. Danielson
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
We present evidence for several non-ice constituents in the surface material of the icy Galilean satellites, using the reflectance spectra returned by the Galileo near infrared mapping spectrometer (NIMS) experiment. Five new absorption features are described at 3.4, 3.88, 4.05, 4.25, and 4.57 μm for Callisto and Ganymede, and some seem to exist for Europa as well. The four absorption bands strong enough to be mapped on Callisto and Ganymede are each spatially distributed in different ways, indicating different materials are responsible for each absorption. The spatial distributions are correlated at the local level in complex ways with surface features and in some cases show global patterns. Suggested candidate spectrally active groups, perhaps within larger molecules, producing the five absorptions include C-H, S-H, SO2, CO2, and C≡N. Organic material like tholins are candidates for the 4.57- and 3.4-μm features. We suggest, based on spectroscopic evidence, that CO2 is present as a form which does not allow rotational modes and that SO2 is present neither as a frost nor a free gas. The CO2, SO2, and perhaps cyanogen (4.57 μm) may be present as very small collections of molecules within the crystal structure, perhaps following models for radiation damage and/or for comet and interstellar grain formation at low temperatures. Some of the dark material on these surfaces may be created by radiation damage of the CO2 and other carbon-bearing species and the formation of graphite. These spectra suggest a complex chemistry within the surface materials and an important role for non-ice materials in the evolution of the satellite surfaces.
References
- Anderson, J. D., W. L. Sjogren, G. Schubert, Galileo gravity results and the internal structure of Io, Science, 272, 709–712, 1996a.
- Anderson, J. D., E. L. Lau, W. L. Sjogren, G. Schubert, W. B. Moore, Gravitational constraints on the internal structure of Ganymede, Nature, 384, 541–543, 1996b.
- Anderson, J. D., E. L. Lau, W. L. Sjogren, G. Schubert, W. B. Moore, Gravitational evidence for an undifferentiated Callisto, Nature, 387, 264–266, 1997a.
- Anderson, J. D., E. L. Lau, W. L. Sjogren, G. Schubert, W. B. Moore, Europa's differentiated internal structure: Inferences from two Galileo encounters, Science, 276, 1236–1239, 1997b.
- Bishop, J. L., C. M. Pieters, T. Hiroi, The source of organic spectral features in Allan Hills 84001: Lab contamination, terrestrial, or extraterrestrial?, Meteorit. Planet. Sci., 32, A14, 1997.
- Blake, D., L. Allamandola, S. Sandford, D. Hudgins, F. Freund, Clathrate hydrate formation in amorphous cometary ice analogs in vacuo, Science, 254, 548–551, 1991.
- Brooke, T. Y., A. T. Tokunaga, R. F. Knacke, Detection of the 3.4-μm emission feature in comets P/Brorsen-Metcalf and Okazaki-Levy-Rudenko (1989R) and an observational summary, Astron. J., 101, 268–278, 1991.
- Buratti, B. J., Ganymede and Callisto: Surface textural dichotomies and photometric analysis, Icarus, 92, 312–323, 1991.
- Calvin, W. M., R. N. Clark, Modeling the reflectance spectrum of Callisto 0.25 to 4.1 μm, Icarus, 89, 305–317, 1991.
- Calvin, W. M., R. N. Clark, Spectral distinctions between the leading and trailing hemispheres of Callisto: New observations, Icarus, 104, 69–78, 1993.
- Calvin, W. M., R. N. Clark, R. H. Brown, J. R. Spencer, Spectra of the icy Galilean satellites from 0.2 to 5 μm: A compilation, new observations, and a recent summary, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 19,041–19,048, 1995.
- Calvin, W. M., R. E. Johnson, J. R. Spencer, O2 on Ganymede: Spectral characteristics and plasma formation mechanisms, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 673–676, 1996.
- Carlson, R. W., Surface composition of the Galilean satellites from Galileo near-infrared mapping spectroscopyAnnual MtgGeol. Soc. of Am.Salt Lake CityOct. 20–24, 1997.
- Carlson, R. W., P. R. Weissman, W. D. Smythe, J. C. Mahoney, and the NIMS science and engineering team, Near-infrared mapping spectrometer experiment on Galileo, Space Sci. Rev., 60, 457–502, 1992.
- Carlson, R. W., Smythe, K. Baines, E. Barbanis, K. Becker, R. Burns, S. Calcutt, W. Calvin, R. Clark, G. Danielson, A. Davies, P. Drossart, T. Encrenaz, F. Fanale, J. Granahan, G. Hansen, P. Herrera, C. Hibbitts, J. Hui, P. Irwin, T. Johnson, L. Kamp, H. Kieffer, F. Leader, E. Lellouch, R. Lopes-Gautier, D. Matson, T. McCord, R. Mehlman, A. Ocampo, G. Orton, M. Roos-Serote, M. Segura, J. Shirley, L. Soderblom, A. Stevenson, F. Taylor, J. Torson, A. Weir, P. Weissman, Near-infrared spectroscopy and spectral mapping of Jupiter and the Galilean satellites: Results from Galileo's initial orbit, Science, 274, 385–388, 1996.
- Clark, R. N., Ganymede, Europa, Callisto, and Saturn's rings: Compositional analysis from reflectance spectroscopy, Icarus, 44, 388–409, 1980.
- Clark, R. N., Implications of using broadband photometry for compositional remote sensing of icy objects, Icarus, 49, 244–257, 1982.
- Clark, R. N., T. B. McCord, The Galilean satellites: New near-infrared reflectance measurements (0.65–2.5 μm) and a 0.325–5 μm summary, Icarus, 41, 323–339, 1980.
- Clark, R. N., R. B. Singer, P. D. Owensby, F. P. Fanale, Galilean satellites: High precision near-infrared spectrophotometry (0.65–2.5 μm) of the leading and trailing sides, Bull. Am. Astron. Soc., 12, 713–714, 1980.
- Clark, R. N., F. P. Fanale, M. J. Gaffey, Surface composition of satellites, Satellites J. Burns, M. S. Matthews, 437–491, Univ. of Ariz. Press, Tucson, 1986.
- Colthup, N. B., L. H. Daly, S. E. Wiberley, Introduction to Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy 3rd ed., 547, Academic, San Diego, Calif., 1990.
10.1016/B978-0-08-091740-5.50014-4 Google Scholar
- Cruikshank, D. P., L. J. Allamandola, W. K. Hartmann, D. J. Tholen, R. H. Brown, C. N. Matthews, J. F. Bell, Solid C-N bearing material on outer solar system bodies, Icarus, 94, 345–353, 1991.
- De Graauw, T., et al., SWS observations of solid CO2 in molecular clouds, Astron. Astrophys., 315, L345–L348, 1996.
- Delsemme, A. H., Chemical composition of cometary nuclei, Comets L. L. Wilkening, 85–130, Univ. of Ariz. Press, Tuscon, 1982.
- Ehrenfreund, P., F. Robert, L. d'Hendecourt, F. Behar, Comparison of interstellar and meteoritic organic matter at 3.4 μm, Astron. Astrophys., 252, 712–717, 1991.
- Ehrenfreund, P., L. d'Hendecourt, E. Dartois, M. J. deMuizon, M. Breitfellner, J. L. Puget, H. J. Habing, ISO observations of interstellar ices and implications for comets, Icarus, 130, 1–15, 1997.
- Encrenaz, T., R. F. Knacke, Carbonaceous compounds in comets: Infrared observations, Comets in the Post Halley Era R. L. Newburn, M. Neugebauer, J. Rahe, 107–137, Kluwer Acad., Norwell, Mass., 1991.
10.1007/978-94-011-3378-4_5 Google Scholar
- Encrenaz, T., L. d'Hendecourt, J. L. Puget, The interpretation of the 3.2–3.5 μm emission feature in the spectrum of comet P/Halley: Abundances in the comet and in interstellar matter, Astron. Astrophys., 207, 162–173, 1988.
- Falk, M., Amorphous solid carbon dioxide, J. Chem. Phys., 86, 560–564, 1987.
- Fanale, F. P., R. H. Brown, D. P. Cruikshank, R. N. Clark, Significance of absorption features in Io's IR reflectance spectrum, Nature, 280, 761–763, 1979.
- Farmer, V. C., The Infrared Spectra of Minerals, 539, Am. Mineral. Soc., Boston, Mass., 1974.
10.1180/mono-4 Google Scholar
- Farrel, E. F., R. E. Newnham, Electronic and vibrational absorption spectra in cordierite, Am. Mineral., 52, 380, 1967.
- Fink, U., H. P. Larson, Temperature dependence of the water-ice spectrum between 1 and 4 μm: Application to Europa, Ganymede, and Saturn's rings, Icarus, 24, 411–420, 1975.
- Fink, U., N. H. Dekkers, H. P. Larson, Infrared spectra of the Galilean satellites of Jupiter, Astrophys. J., 179, L155–L159, 1973.
- Goody, R. M., andY. L. Yung, Vibration-rotation spectra of gaseous molecules, in Atmospheric Radiation, 2nd ed., pp. 67–124,Oxford Univ. Press,New York,1989.
- Hapke, B., Theory of Reflectance and Emittance Spectroscopychap. 10, 261–283, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1993.
10.1017/CBO9780511524998.010 Google Scholar
- Hobbs, P. V., Ice Physics, 837, Clarendon, Oxford, 1974.
- Irvine, W. M., J. B. Pollack, Infrared optical properties of water and ice spheres, Icarus, 8, 324–360, 1968.
- James, P. B., H. H. Kieffer, D. A. Paige, The seasonal cycle of carbon dioxide on Mars, Mars H. H. Kieffer, B. M. Jakosky, C. W. Snyder, M. S. Matthews, 934–968, Univ. of Ariz. Press, Tucson, 1992.
- Johnson, R. E., W. A. Jesser, O2/O3 microatmospheres in the surface of Ganymede, Astrophys. J., 480, L79–L82, 1997.
- Johnson, T. V., T. B. McCord, Spectral geometric albedo of the Galilean satellites, 0.3 to 2.5 microns, Astrophys. J., 169, 589–594, 1971.
- Johnson, T. V., L. A. Soderblom, J. A. Mosher, G. E. Danielson, A. F. Cook, P. Kupperman, Global multispectral mosaics of the icy Galilean satellites, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 5789–5805, 1983.
- Kuiper, G. P., Limits of completeness, Planets and Satellites G. P. Kuiper, B. M. Middlehurst, 575–591, Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill., 1961.
- Lane, A. L., D. L. Domingue, IUE's view of Callisto: Detection of an SO2 absorption correlated to possible torus neutral wind alterations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 1143–1146, 1997.
- Lane, A. L., R. M. Nelson, D. L. Matson, Evidence for sulphur implantation in Europa's UV absorption band, Nature, 292, 38–39, 1981.
- McCord, T. B., L. A. Soderblom, R. W. Carlson, F. P. Fanale, R. Lopes-Gautier, A. C. Ocampo, J. Forsythe, B. Campbell, J. C. Granahan, W. D. Smythe, P. R. Weissman, K. J. Becker, K. Edwards, L. Kamp, J. Lo, R. Mehlman, J. Torson, G. E. Danielson, D. L. Matson, H. H. Kieffer, T. V. Johnson, Galileo infrared imaging spectrometry measurements at the Moon, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 5587–5600, 1994.
- McCord, T. B., J. C. Granahan, G. B. Hansen, C. A. Hibbitts, F. P. Fanale, R. N. Clark, R. W. Carlson, W. Smythe, M. Segura, J. Hui, Galileo NIMS team, Analysis of reflectance spectra for the icy Galilean Satellites from the Galileo Mission Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) investigation (abstract), Bull. Am. Astron. Soc., 28, 1138, 1996a.
- McCord, T. B., J. C. Granahan, F. P. Fanale, G. B. Hansen, C. A. Hibbitts, R. N. Clark, R. W. Carlson, W. Smythe, M. Segura, J. Hui, Galileo NIMS team, Analysis of reflectance spectra for the icy Galilean Satellites from the Galileo Mission Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) investigation (abstract), Eos Trans. AGU, 7746, Fall Meet. Suppl., F445, 1996b.
- McCord, T. B., F. P. Fanale, J. C. Granahan, G. B. Hansen, C. A. Hibbitts, R. N. Clark, D. L. Matson, T. V. Johnson, M. Segura, R. W. Carlson, W. D. Smythe, NIMS team, Non water-ice constituents in the surface material of the icy Galilean Satellites from the Galileo NIMS investigation (abstract), Eos Trans. AGU17, Spring Meet. Suppl., S202, 1997a.
- McCord, T. B., R. W. Carlson, W. D. Smythe, G. B. Hansen, R. N. Clark, C. A. Hibbitts, F. P. Fanale, J. C. Granahan, M. Segura, D. L. Matson, T. V. Johnson, P. D. Martin, NIMS Team, Organics and other molecules in the surfaces of the icy Galilean satellites, Science, 278, 271–275, 1997b.
- McDonald, G. D., B. N. Khare, W. R. Thompson, C. Sagan, CH4/NH3/H2O spark tholin: Chemical analysis and interaction with Jovian aqueous clouds, Icarus, 94, 354–367, 1991.
- Moroz, V. I., Infrared spectrophotometry of the Moon and the Galilean satellites of Jupiter ( in Russian), Astron. Z.,42, 1287–1295,1965. Trans. Sov. Astron. A. J., 9,999–1006,1965.
- Nash, D. B., R. R. Howell, Hydrogen sulfide: Evidence from telescopic and laboratory infrared spectra, Science, 244, 454–457, 1989.
- Nelson, R. M., A. L. Lane, D. L. Matson, G. J. Veeder, B. J. Buratti, E. F. Tedesco, Spectral geometric albedos of the galilean satellites from 0.24 to 0.34 micrometers: Observations with the International Ultraviolet Explorer, Icarus, 72, 358–380, 1987.
- Noll, K. S., H. A. Weaver, A. M. Gonnella, The albedo spectrum of Europa from 2200Å to 3300Å, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 19,057–19,059, 1995.
- Noll, K. S., R. E. Johnson, A. L. Lane, D. L. Domingue, H. A. Weaver, Detection of ozone on Ganymede, Science, 273, 341–343, 1996.
- Noll, K. S., R. E. Johnson, M. A. McGrath, J. J. Caldwell, Detection of SO2 on Callisto with the Hubble Space Telescope, Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 1139–1142, 1997.
- Ockman, N., The infrared and raman spectra of ice, Adv. Phys., 7, 199–220, 1958.
- Pilcher, C. B., S. T. Ridgway, T. B. McCord, Galilean satellites: Identification of water frost, Science, 178, 1087–1089, 1972.
- Pollack, J. B., E. C. Witteborn, E. F. Erickson, D. W. Strecker, B. J. Baldwin, T. E. Bunch, Near-infrared spectra of the Galilean satellites: Observations and compositional implications, Icarus, 36, 271–303, 1978.
- Pospieszalska, M. K., R. E. Johnson, Magnetospheric ion bombardment profiles of satellites: Europa and Dione, Icarus, 78, 1–13, 1989.
- Roush, T. L., J. B. Pollack, F. C. Witteborn, J. D. Bregman, J. P. Simpson, Ice and minerals on Callisto: A reassessment of the reflectance spectra, Icarus, 86, 355–382, 1990.
- Salama, F., L. J. Allamandola, F. C. Witteborn, D. P. Cruikshank, S. A. Sandford, J. D. Bregman, The 2.5–5.0 μm spectra of Io: Evidence for H2S and H2O frozen in SO2, Icarus, 83, 66–82, 1990.
- Salisbury, J. W., L. S. Walter, N. Vergo, D. M. d'Aria, Infrared (2.1–25 μm) Spectra of Minerals, Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore, Md., 1991.
- Sandford, S. A., L. J. Allamandola, The physical and infrared spectral properties of CO2 in astrophysical ice analogs, Astrophys. J., 355, 357–372, 1990.
- Sandford, S. A., L. J. Allamandola, A. G. G. M. Tielens, K. Sellgren, M. Tapia, Y. Pendleton, The interstellar C-H stretching band near 3.4 microns: Constraints on the composition of organic material in the diffuse interstellar medium, Astrophys. J., 371, 607–620, 1991.
- Sill, G. T., R. N. Clark, Composition of the surfaces of the Galilean satellites, Satellites of Jupiter D. Morrison, 174–212, Univ. of Ariz. Press, Tucson, 1982.
- Smythe, W. D., R. M. Nelson, D. B. Nash, Spectral evidence for the SO2 frost or adsorbate on Io's surface, Nature, 280, 766–767, 1979.
- Spencer, J. R., Icy Galilean satellite reflectance spectra: Less ice on Ganymede and Callisto?, Icarus, 70, 99–110, 1987.
- Spencer, J. R., W. M. Calvin, M. J. Person, Charge coupled device spectra of the Galilean satellites: Molecular oxygen on Ganymede, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 19,049–19,056, 1995.
- Swan, P., R. M. Walker, B. Wopenka, 3.4-μm absorption in interplanetary dust particles: Evidence for indigenous hydrocarbons and a further link to comet Halley, Meteoritics, 22, 510–511, 1987.
- Warren, S. G., Optical constants of ice from the ultraviolet to the microwave, Appl. Optics, 23, 1206–1225, 1984.
- Warren, S. G., Optical constants of carbon dioxide ice, Appl. Opt., 25, 2650–2674, 1986.
- Watson, K., B. C. Murray, H. Brown, The stability of volatiles in the solar system, Icarus, 1, 317–327, 1963.
- Whittet, D. C. B., W. A. Schutte, A. G. G. M. Tielens, A. C. A. Boogert, T. De Graauw, P. Ehrenfreund, P. A. Gerakines, F. P. Helmich, T. Prusti, E. F. vanDishoeck, An ISO SWS view of interstellar ices - First results, Astron. Astrophys., 315, L357–L360, 1996.
- Wood, D. L., K. Nassau, Infrared spectra of foreign molecules in Beryl, J. Chem. Phys., 47, 2220, 1967.