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First published April 2002

Disaster on the Drina: The Austro-Hungarian Army in Serbia, 1914

Abstract

Serbia’s defeat of the Austro-Hungarian invasion of 1914 counts among the major upset victories of the last century. This article, which examines Austro-Hungarian tactical performance in Serbia in that campaign, offers unique insights into the causes of the Habsburg debacle. Analysis of the battlefield performance of the Austro-Hungarian 21st division, which fought and lost the first Habsburg engagement in August 1914, reveals much about the operational shortcomings of Vienna’s field forces that summer and autumn; in particular, this article details the impact of the controversial nationalities issue on Habsburg battlefield effectiveness, offering a revisionist perspective about the realities and liabilities of a multinational army.

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1.
1 See S. Williamson, Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the First World War (New York, 1991), pp. 190-216.
2.
2 G. Rothenberg, Army of Francis Joseph (West Lafayette, IN, 1976), p. 159.
3.
3 Kriegsarchiv (KA)/Neue Feld Akten (NFA), Fasz.1188, k.k. Landwehr Kmdo. in Prag, Pras.Nr.1064, 28.7.14.
4.
4 In fact, there was not one Habsburg army but three: the `common’ Imperial-and-Royal Army (k.u.k. Armee), recruited from the entire monarchy, supplemented by the Austrian and Hungarian home armies, the Imperial-Royal (k.k. Landwehr) and the Royal Hungarian (k.u. Honved) forces.
5.
5Generalstabshandbuch (Vienna, 1912), p. 247; Walter Wagner, `Die k.(u.)k. Armee-Gliederung und Aufgabenstellung’, in Die Habsburgermonarchie 1848-1918, v: Die bewaffnete Macht (Vienna, 1987), p. 452.
6.
6Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg, i: Das Kriegsjahr (Vienna, 1930), p. 34.
7.
7 A. von Cramon, Unser osterreichisch-ungarischer Bundesgenosse im Weltkriege (Berlin, 1920), p. 200.
8.
8 G. Conrad von Hotzendorf, Mein Leben mit Conrad von Hotzendorf (Vienna, 1935), p. 114.
9.
9 G. Rothenberg, `The Austro-Hungarian Campaign against Serbia in 1914’, Journal of Military History LIII (1989), pp. 132-3.
10.
10 N. Stone, `Die Mobilmachung der ost.-ung. Armee 1914’, Militargeschichtliche Mitteilungen XVI (1974), pp. 67-71, 81-2.
11.
11OUlK: I, pp. 62-80; F. Franek, `Probleme der Organization im ersten Kriegsjahre’, in Erganzungsheft zum Werke OUlK (Vienna, 1930), p. 29.
12.
12 Stone, `Mobilmachung’, 83.
13.
13 KA, Nachla Robert Nowak, B/726, Nr.1/I, `Die Klammer des Reichs: Das Verhalten der elf Nationalitaten Osterreich-Ungarns in der k.u.k. Wehrmacht 1914-1918’, pp. 192-3.
14.
14OUlK: I, p. 46.
15.
15 KA, Nachla Robert Nowak, Nr.1/I, pp. 252-3.
16.
16 C. von Walzel, Kundschaftsdienst oder Spionage? Erinnerungen eines Nachrichtenoffizier (Leipzig, 1934), p. 50.
17.
17 Equivalent to an Anglo-American lieutenant-general of the artillery or engineers.
18.
18 Rothenberg, `Austro-Hungarian Campaign’, pp. 135-6.
19.
19 M. Radenovic, Cerska operacija (Belgrade, 1953), pp. 381-2; J. Schon, Sabac! Der Kampf der deutschbohmischen 29.ID, des Prager VIII Korps und des Budapester IV Korps im August 1914 in Nordwest-Serbien (Reichenberg, 1928), p. 13.
20.
20 KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, `Kriegsordre de bataille der serbischen Armee Juli 1914’; Radenovic, Cerska operacija, pp. 383-4.
21.
21 KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, `Uber Wesen, Ausrustung und Kampfesart der Komitadschis’.
22.
22 K. Peball, `Der Feldzug gegen Serbien und Montenegro im Jahre 1914’, Osterreichische Militarische Zeitschrift, Sonderheft (1965), p. 21; Schon, Sabac, p. 12.
23.
23 J. Lyon, “A Peasant Mob’: The Serbian Army on the Eve of the Great War’, Journal of Military History XI (1997, pp. 481-502), explains Serbian shortcomings in detail, though it provides little overall context in which to make a valid comparison with Austro-Hungarian forces.
24.
24 Dimitrije Djordjevic, `Vojvoda Putnik, the Serbian High Command, and Strategy in 1914’, in: B. Kiraly, N. Dreisziger and A. Nofi, eds, War and Society in East Central Europe, xix: East Central European Society in World War I (New York, 1985), pp. 70-1.
25.
25Op. cit., p. 572.
26.
26 See KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, `Kriegsordre’.
27.
27 Rothenberg, `Austro-Hungarian Campaign’, p. 131.
28.
28Op. cit., pp. 135-7.
29.
29 Equivalent to an Anglo-American lieutenant-general, like General der Kavallerie.
30.
30 Baron von Giesl’s career had not been helped by the previous year’s revelation that his widely respected chief of staff, Colonel Alfred Redl, was a major Russian spy and homosexual; no less embarrassing was the fact that Giesl, as army intelligence chief in 1900, had rapidly promoted the promising young Captain Redl.
31.
31 KA, Nachla Robert Nowak, Nr.1/I, pp. 189, 192-3, 204-5, 213.
32.
32 J. Koralka and R.J. Crampton, `Die Tschechen’, in: Die Habsburgermonarchie 1848-1918, iii: Die Volker des Reiches/I (1980), pp. 493-7; P. Vysny, Neo-Slavism and the Czechs 1898-1914 (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 8-12.
33.
33 O. Gallian, Der osterreichische Soldat im Weltkrieg: Die Legende vom `Bruder Schnurschuh’ (Graz, 1933), p. 48. All Habsburg officers were required to learn one or more `regimental languages’, those spoken by at least 20% of a unit’s soldiers, although orders and commands were issued in German.
34.
34 V. Mamatey, quoted in A. Sked, The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 1815-1918 (London, 1989), p. 224.
35.
35 The 6th, 7th and 8th Regiments were formed in 1889 from independent Landwehr battalions, while the 28th was raised a decade later from battalions of the 7th and 8th Regiments. A. Wrede, Geschichte der k.u.k. Wehrmacht: Die Regimenter, Corps, Branchen und Anstalten von 1618 bis Ende des XIX Jahrhunderts, v (Vienna, 1903), pp. 385-9.
36.
36 M. Ehnl, `Die ost.-ung. Landmacht nach Aufbau, Gliederung, Friedensgarnison, Einteilung und nationaler Zusammensetzung im Sommer 1914’, in Erganzungsheft 9 zum Werke OUlK (Vienna, 1934), pp. 75, 79.
37.
37Op. cit., pp. 53, 81, 83.
38.
38 KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, 21.LITD Kmdo., `Trainorganization’.
39.
39 The delightfully archaic term for the equivalent of an Anglo-American major-general.
40.
40 KA, Qualifikationsliste, Kart.2629, Arthur Przyborski.
41.
41 KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, k.k. Landwehr Kmdo in Prag, Pras.Nr.1064, 28.7.14; Stone, `Mobilmachung’, p. 78.
42.
42 KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, k.k. Landwehr Kmdo in Prag, Pras.Nr.80, 31.7.14; k.k. LIR Prag Nr.8, Res.Nr.215 Mob., 1.8.14.
43.
43 KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo, Nachtigung vom 9. auf den 10. August.
44.
44 KA/NFA, Fasz.1187, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo, Abfertigung, 8.8.14; Fasz.1188, k.u.k. 5.Armeekmdo Op.Nr.77, 101.
45.
45 KA, Sammlung Balaban 10, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Fruhrapporte, 11.8.14.
46.
46 Rudolf Jerabek, Potiorek: General im Schatten von Sarajevo (Graz, 1991), p. 118.
47.
47 KA, Gefechts-Berichte, k.k. 41.LIBrig. Kmdo., 13.8.14. Before the autumn rains, the Drina was in many places little more than a foot deep, so the 21st Division’s infantry crossed wearing only their underpants, having removed their trousers to keep them dry.
48.
48 Rothenberg, `Austro-Hungarian Campaign’, p. 137.
49.
49 The Habsburg infantryman’s kit weighed at least 50 lb and included a rifl e and bayonet, ammunition, a spade, a knapsack (filled with emergency rations, cooking and eating utensils, extra shoes, an extra shirt, and a change of underwear), an overcoat, a tent quarter, and anything else the soldier might be ordered to carry. F. Kreisler, Four Weeks in the Trenches (Boston, 1917), p. 13.
50.
50 KA, Nachla Robert Nowak, Nr.I/1, pp. 261-3; Max von Pitreich, 1914: Die militarische Probleme unseres Kriegsbeginnes (Vienna, 1934), pp. 103-4; Schon, Šabac, p. 99.
51.
51 Djordjevic, `Vojvoda Putnik’, p. 573.
52.
52 KA, Gefechts-Berichte 17, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.84/5, 31.8.14; KA, Nachla Robert Nowak, Nr.I/1, p. 263; Radenovic, Cerska operacija, pp. 146-7.
53.
53 KA, Gefechts-Berichte 17, k.k. 21.LID Kmdo., Op.Nr.84/5, 31.8.14.
54.
54Op. cit.; Schon, Sabac, pp. 166-8.
55.
55 R. Wagner, Geschichte des ehemaligen Schutzen-Regiments Nr.6 (Karlsbad, 1932), pp. 75-8.
56.
56 R. Martinek, Kriegstagebuch eines Artillerie-Offizier (Vienna, 1975), p. 13; Radenovic, Cerska operacija, pp. 160-3.
57.
57 Djordjevic, `Vojvoda Putnik’, p. 577.
58.
58 KA, Gefechts-Berichte 17, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.75/4, 22.8.14; Geschichte des k.u.k. Dragoner-Regiment Furst zu Windischgratz Nr.14 im Weltkrieg (Vienna, 1922), pp. 31-3.
59.
59 KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, k.k. 21.LID Kmdo., Op.Nr.77/1, 23.8.14; Wagner, Geschichte, p. 80.
60.
60 KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, k.k. 42.LIBrig. Kmdo., Nr.1, an das 21.LITD Kmdo., 18.8.14.
61.
61 KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.76/6, 22.8.14; Fasz.1191, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.80/5, Verlust-Ausweise, 25.8.14; k.k. LIR Pisek Nr.28, Fruhrapporte, 23.8.14.
62.
62ÖUlK, I. pp. 134-46.
63.
63Op. cit., p. 152; Djordjevic, `Vojvoda Putnik’, p. 578.
64.
64 Jerabek, Potiorek, p. 137; Rothenberg, `Austro-Hungarian Campaign’, p. 138.
65.
65 Schon, Sabac, 175; F.C. von Hotzendorf, Aus meiner Dienstzeit 1906-1918, iv (Vienna, 1922), p. 522.
66.
66 KA, Nachla Robert Nowak, I/1, pp. 268-9; Jerabek, Potiorek, pp. 121-4, 141.
67.
67ÖUlK: I, p. 151.
68.
68 KA, Nachla Robert Nowak, I/1, pp. 268-9.
69.
69Op. cit., pp. 269-74. Potiorek was titular colonel of the 102nd, a Central Bohemian regiment 91% Czech in composition.
70.
70 A reserve officer from III Corps commented honestly on his second-line troops’ `comparative softness and lack of training’; the situation in the 21st Division was no different. Kreisler, Four Weeks, p. 13.
71.
71 Schon, Sabac, pp. 175-81.
72.
72 KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, k.u.k. 5.Armee-Etappenkmdo., Nr.170, 21.8.14.
73.
73 KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, k.u.k. 5.Armee-Etappenkmdo., Res.Nr.120, 22.8.14; k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.108, 22.8.14.
74.
74 KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, k.u.k. 5.Armeekmdo., Op.Nr.402/15, 22.8.14 (emphasis original).
75.
75 KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, k.u.k. 5.Armeekmdo., zu Res.Nr.35/72, 27.8.14.
76.
76 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.515, `Nachrichten uber den Feind’.
77.
77ÖUlK: I, pp. 605-10; Rothenberg, `Austro-Hungarian Campaign’, pp. 138-9.
78.
78 KA/NFA, Fasz.1188, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., K.Nr.6, an 21.LITD Kmdo., 23.8.14; k.u.k. 5.Armeekmdo., Op.Nr.403/20, 29.8.14.
79.
79 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.95/8, `Situation am 10.9.14’.
80.
80 D. Lukic, Bitka na Drini 1914 (Belgrade, 1966), pp. 22-3.
81.
81 KA, Qualifikationsliste, Kart.2519, Alois Podhajsky. Like a significant number of Habsburg career officers, Podhajsky was of petit bourgeois origin, his father having been a small-town gendarmerie sergeant.
82.
82 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.518/8, `Nachrichten uber den Feind’, 12.9.14; Fasz.1191, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Fruhrapporte, 5. and 11.9.14; M. Djurisic, Bitka na Drini 1914 (Belgrade, 1969), pp. 125-32.
83.
83 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.518/7, `Disposition fur den 14.9.14’; O. Wulff, Die ost.-ung. Donaufl otille im Weltkriege 1814-1918 (Vienna, 1934), pp. 14-30.
84.
84 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.99/4, 14.9.14; ÖUlK: I, pp. 617-18. Artillery and other road-bound units needed bridges to reach the east bank; the stone bridge over the Sava was soon supplemented by a pontoon bridge built by 21st engineers.
85.
85 KA, Nachla Robert Nowak, I/1, p. 276; Lukic, Bitka, p. 111; Jerabek, Potiorek, p. 146.
86.
86 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.521/34, 16.9.14.
87.
87 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.105/10, 21.9.14.
88.
88 Martinek, Kriegstagebuch, p. 13; OUlK: I, p. 449.
89.
89 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, LIR.8 zu 21.LITD Kmdo., 19.9.14.
90.
90 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, LIR.7 an 21.LITD Kmdo., 24.9.14; LIR.6 an 43.LIBrig. Kmdo., 24.9.14; LIR.8 an 42.LIBrig. Kmdo., 24.9.14.
91.
91 KA/NFA, Fasz.1191, MaRegt.15, Fruhrapporte, 21.9.14; Fasz.1189, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Abfertigung, 24.9.14.
92.
92 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.111/6, 27.9.14. As a Landsturm officer serving in Galicia noted eloquently of the rst days of trench warfare, `Centuries fall from one, and one becomes a primeval man, nearing the cave-dweller in a incredibly short time.’ Kreisler, Four Weeks, p. 64.
93.
93 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.117/2, 3.10.14.
94.
94 KA/NFA, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.117/2, 3.10.14.
95.
95 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.111/6, 27.9.14; k.u.k. MaBaon.88, Nr.11, 29.9.14.
96.
96 Martinek, Kriegstagebuch, p. 22.
97.
97 C. Fuhr, Das k.u.k. Armeeoberkommando und Innenpolitik in osterreich 1914-1917 (Vienna, 1968), pp. 30-1.
98.
98 KA/NFA, Fasz.1191, k.u.k. Militarkmdo. in Prag, Pras.Nr.3197 ex 1914, 27.09.14.
99.
99 KA/NFA, Fasz.1191, k.u.k. Militarkmdo. in Prag, Pras.Nr.3311, `Disziplinare Verhaltnisse beim ErsBaon des LIR Nr.8’, 26.9.14 (Emphasis original).
100.
100 KA/NFA, Fasz.1191, k.u.k. Militarkmdo. in Prag, Pras.Nr.3669, `Verlegungen von Ersatzkorpern’, 4.10.14.
101.
101 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.537/14, 2.10.14 (emphasis original).
102.
102 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr. 115/4, 1.10.14; Op.Nr.115/1, 1.10.14.
103.
103 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.124/30, 10.10.14; Op.Nr.124/5, 10.10.14; Op.Nr.127/5, 13.10.14.
104.
104 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.556/1, 21.10.14; Op.Nr.558/4, 23.10.14.
105.
105ÖUlK: I, pp. 659-60; KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Res.Nr.683, 17.10.14.
106.
106 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, 5.Armeekmdo., Op.Nr.459/21, 17.10.14.
107.
107Op. cit.
108.
108 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.556/1, 21.10.14; Op.Nr.558/4, 23.10.14.
109.
109 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, Telegramm, 5.Armeekmdo. an das 8.Korps Kmdo., 25.10.14.
110.
110 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.140/8, 28.10.14.
111.
111 KA/NFA, Fasz.1189, k.u.k. .Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.563/30, 29.10.14; Telegramm, 5.Op.Armeekmdo. an das 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.470/5, 28.10.14.
112.
112 KA/NFA, Fasz.1190, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.567/18, 2.11.14.
113.
113 KA/NFA, Fasz.1190, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.571/4, 5.11.14.
114.
114 KA/NFA, Fasz.1190, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.161/1, 17.11.14; Op.Nr.163/2, 18.11.1.4; k.u.k. 5.Armeekmdo., Op.Nr.489/23, 16.11.14.
115.
115 Rothenberg, `Austro-Hungarian Campaign’, p. 141.
116.
116 Franek, `Probleme’, p. 21; F. Neubauer, Die Gendarmerie in Osterreich 1849-1924 (Graz 1925), p. 185.
117.
117 Replacements were sent to the front with obsolete rifl es, either the M.86/90 Mannlicher 8 mm or the even more antiquated M.73/77 Werndl 11mm. KA/NFA, Fasz.1190, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.571/4, 5.11.14; E. Steinbock, `Die Ausrustung des osterreichischen Soldaten im Ersten Weltkrieg’, in Weltkrieg 1914-1918: Heereskunde-Kriegsgeschichtliche Betrachtungen siebzig Jahre danach (Vienna, 1988), p. 83.
118.
118 OUlK: I, pp. 686-7; see D. Batakovic and N. Polovic, Kolubarska bitka (Belgrade, 1989) for a detailed examination of the Serbian side, including many original documents and orders.
119.
119 Wagner, Geschichte, p. 103.
120.
120 KA/NFA, Fasz.1190, k.k. 42.LIBrig.Kmdo., Op.Nr.33, 24.11.14; k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.172/8, 27.11.14; Fasz.1191, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Fruhrapporte, 1.12.14.
121.
121 Rothenberg, `Austro-Hungarian Campaign’, 142-3; ÖUlK: I, pp. 710-12.
122.
122 KA/NFA, Fasz.1190, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.177/1, 2.12.14; ÖUlK: I: 715-6; Peball, `Feldzug’, p. 30.
123.
123ÖUlK: I. pp. 718-19.
124.
124 KA/NFA, Fasz.1190, k.k.21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.183/5, 8.12.14.
125.
125ÖUlK: I, pp. 442-3.
126.
126 KA/NFA, Fasz.1190, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.190/4, 15.12.14; Op.Nr.191/2, 16.12.14.
127.
127 KA/NFA, Fasz.1191, k.k. 21.LITD Kmdo., Op.Nr.204/1, 29.12.14.
128.
128 Peball, `Feldzug’, p. 30.
129.
129 Jerabek, Potiorek, pp. 170-1.
130.
130 KA/NFA, Fasz.1190, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.611/6, 21.12.14; KA, Nachla Robert Nowak, I/1, pp. 292-7.
131.
131 KA/NFA, Fasz.1190, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.617/5, 21.12.14.
132.
132 KA/NFA, Fasz.1191, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Res.Nr.1360, 25.12.14.
133.
133 KA/NFA, Fasz.1191, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Res.Nr.1360, 25.12.14; Fasz.1190, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.619/7, 23.12.14.
134.
134 KA, Nachla Robert Nowak, I/1, p. 325.
135.
135 KA/NFA, Fasz.1190, k.u.k. 8.Korps Kmdo., Op.Nr.618/25, 22.12.14; KA, Qualifikationsliste, Kart.2629, Arthur Przyborski.
136.
136 KA, Qualifikationsliste, Kart.2519, Alois Podhajsky.
137.
137 Wagner, Geschichte, p. 379.

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