Using the job demands-resources model to predict burnout and performance
Arnold B. Bakker,
Evangelia Demerouti,
Willem Verbeke,
Corresponding Author
Arnold B. Bakker
Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, Netherlands
Utrecht University, Dept. of Social & Organizational Psychology, P.O. Box 80.14, 3508 TC Utrecht, The NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this authorEvangelia Demerouti
Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, Netherlands
Search for more papers by this authorWillem Verbeke
Department of Marketing and Organization, School of Economics
Erasmus Research Institute of Management
Institute for Sales and Account Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam
Search for more papers by this author
Arnold B. Bakker,
Evangelia Demerouti,
Willem Verbeke,
Corresponding Author
Arnold B. Bakker
Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, Netherlands
Utrecht University, Dept. of Social & Organizational Psychology, P.O. Box 80.14, 3508 TC Utrecht, The NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this authorEvangelia Demerouti
Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, Netherlands
Search for more papers by this authorWillem Verbeke
Department of Marketing and Organization, School of Economics
Erasmus Research Institute of Management
Institute for Sales and Account Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
The job demands-resources (JD-R) model was used to examine the relationship between job characteristics, burnout, and (other-ratings of) performance (N = 146). We hypothesized that job demands (e.g., work pressure and emotional demands) would be the most important antecedents of the exhaustion component of burnout, which, in turn, would predict in-role performance (hypothesis 1). In contrast, job resources (e.g., autonomy and social support) were hypothesized to be the most important predictors of extra-role performance, through their relationship with the disengagement component of burnout (hypothesis 2). In addition, we predicted that job resources would buffer the relationship between job demands and exhaustion (hypothesis 3), and that exhaustion would be positively related to disengagement (hypothesis 4). The results of structural equation modeling analyses provided strong support for hypotheses 1, 2, and 4, but rejected hypothesis 3. These findings support the JD-R model's claim that job demands and job resources initiate two psychological processes, which eventually affect organizational outcomes. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
REFERENCES
- Aguinis, H. (2001, May). Pitfalls in estimating moderating effects: Implications for W&O psychology research and practice. Paper presented at the 10th European Congress on Work and Organizational Psychology, Prague, Czech Republic.
- Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unraveling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
- Arbuckle, J. L. (1997). Amos users' guide. Version 3.6. Chicago: Smallwaters.
- Aronson, E., Pines, A. M., & Kafry, D. (1983). Ausgebrannt. Vom Überdruβ zur Selbstentfaltung [Burnout: From tedium to personal growth]. Stuttgart, Germany: Klett-Cotta.
- Arvey, R. D., & Murphy, K. R. (1998). Performance evaluation in work settings. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 141–168.
- Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., De Boer, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2003). Job demands and job resources as predictors of absence duration and frequency. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 62, 341–356.
- Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Euwema, M. (2003). Which job resources buffer the impact of job demands on burnout? Manuscript submitted for publication.
- Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2002). The validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory—General survey: An Internet study. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 15, 245–260.
- Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., Taris, T., Schaufeli, W. B., & Schreurs, P. (2003). A multi-group analysis of the job demands-resources model in four home care organizations. International Journal of Stress Management. 10, 16–38.
10.1037/1072-5245.10.1.16 Google Scholar
- Bakker, A. B., Schaufeli, W. B., Sixma, H., Bosveld, W., & Van Dierendonck, D. (2000). Patient demands, lack of reciprocity, and burnout: A five-year longitudinal study among general practitioners. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 425–441.
- Behrman, D. N., & Perreault, W. D. J. (1984). A role stress model of the performance and satisfaction of industrial salespersons. Journal of Marketing, 48, 9–21.
- Bhagat, R. S., Allie, S. M., & Ford, D. L. (1995). Coping with stressful events: An empirical analysis. In R. Crandall & P. L. Perrewé (Eds.), Occupational stress: A handbook. Series in health psychology and behavioral medicine (pp. 93–112). Philadelphia, PA: Taylor and Francis.
- Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York: Wiley.
10.1002/9781118619179 Google Scholar
- Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1989). Single sample cross-validation indices for covariance structures. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 24, 445–455.
- Cordes, C. L., & Dougherty, T. W. (1993). A review and integration of research on job burnout. Academy of Management Review, 18, 621–656.
- Cordes, C. L., Dougherty, T. W., & Blum, M. (1997). Patterns of burnout among managers and professionals: A comparison of models. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 685–701.
- Craig, A., & Cooper, R. E. (1992). Symptoms of acute and chronic fatigue. In A. P. Smith & D. A. Jones (Eds.), Handbook of human performance (pp. 289–340). San Diego: Academic Press.
- Cropanzano, R., Rupp, D. E., & Byrne, Z. S. (2003). The relationship of emotional exhaustion to work attitudes, job performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 160–169.
- De Jonge, J., & Kompier, M. A. J. (1997). A critical examination of the demand-control-support model from a work psychological perspective. International Journal of Stress Management, 4, 235–258.
- Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2000). A model of burnout and life satisfaction among nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 32, 454–464.
- Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 499–512.
- Demerouti, E., Bakker, A.B., Vardakou, I., & Kantas, A. (2003). The convergent validity of two burnout instruments: A multitrait-multimethod analysis. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 19, 12–23.
- Fisher, C. D., & Gitelson, R. (1983). A meta-analysis of the correlates of role conflict and ambiguity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 320–333.
- Frankenhaeuser, M. (1979). Psychoneuroendocrine approaches to the study of emotion as related to stress and coping. In H. E. Howe & R. A. Dienstbier (Eds.), Nebraska symposium on motivation 1978 (pp. 123–161). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
- Frankenhaeuser, M. (1980). Psychoneuroendocrine approaches to the study of stressful person-environment transactions. In H. Selye (Ed.), Selye's guide to stress research (Vol. I; pp. 46–70). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
- Frankenhaeuser, M., & Johansson, G. (1986). Stress at work: Psychobiological and psychosocial aspects. International Review of Applied Psychology, 35, 287–299.
- Freudenberger, H. J. (1974). Staff burn-out. Journal of Social Issues, 30, 159–166.
- Freund, A., Li, K. Z., & Baltes, H. P. B. (1999). Successful development and aging. In J. Brandtstädter & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Action and development: Theory and research through the life span (pp. 401–434). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
10.4135/9781452204802.n14 Google Scholar
- Fried, Y., Ben-David, H. A., Tiegs, R. B., Avital, N., & Yeverechyahu, U. (1998). The interactive effect of role conflict and role ambiguity on job performance. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 71, 19–27.
- Frone, M. R., Russell, M., & Cooper, M. L. (1992). Antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict: Testing a model of the work-family interface. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 65–78.
- Furda, J. (1995). Werk, persoon en welzijn: Een toets van het JD-C model [Work, personality, and well-being: A test of the JD-C model]. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Utrecht University, Netherlands.
- Gaillard, A. W. K. (2001). Stress, workload, and fatigue as three biobehavioral states: A general overview. In P. A. Hancock & P. A. Desmond (Eds.), Stress, workload, and fatigue (pp. 623–640). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
- Gellalty, I. R., & Irving, P. G. (2001). Personality, autonomy and contextual performance of managers. Human Performance, 14, 231–245.
- Geurts, S. A. E. (2000). SWING: Survey work-home interference Nijmegen. Internal research report. Nijmegen, Netherlands: University of Nijmegen.
- Goodman, S. A., & Svyantek, D. J. (1999). Personorganization fit and contextual performance: Do shared values matter? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 55, 254–275.
- Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976). Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 250–279.
- Haines, V. A., Hurlbert, J. S., & Zimmer, C. (1991). Occupational stress, social support, and the buffer hypothesis. Work and Occupations, 18, 212–235.
- Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new approach at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44, 513–524.
- Hobfoll, S. E., & Freedy, J. (1993). Conservation of resources: A general stress theory applied to burnout. In W. B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, & T. Marek (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (pp. 115–129). Washington, DC: Taylor and Francis.
- Hockey, G. R. J. (1993). Cognitive-energetical control mechanisms in the management of work demands and psychological health. In A. Baddely & L. Weiskrantz (Eds.), Attention: Selection, awareness, and control (pp. 328–345). Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
- Hockey, G. R. J. (1997). Compensatory control in the regulation of human performance under stress and high workload: A cognitive-energetical framework. Biological Psychology, 45, 73–93.
- Hockey, G. R. J., Coles, M. G. H., & Gaillard, A. W. K. (1986). Energetical issues in research on human information processing. In G. R. J. Hockey & A. W. K. Gaillard (Eds.), Energetics in human information processing (pp. 3–21). Dordrecht: Nijhoff.
- Hoyle, R. H. (1995). The structural equation modeling approach: Basic concepts and fundamental issues. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling, concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 1–15). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Johnson, J. V., & Hall, E. M. (1988). Job strain, work place social support and cardiovascular disease: A cross-sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population. American Journal of Public Health, 78, 1336–1342.
- Kahn, R. L., & Byosiere, P. (1992). Stress in organizations. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 3; pp. 571–650). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
- Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 285–308.
- Karasek, R. (1985). Job content instrument: Questionnaire and user's guide, revision 1.1. Los Angeles: University of Southern California.
- Keijsers, G. J., Schaufeli, W. B., Le Blanc, P. M., Zwerts, C., & Reis-Miranda, D. (1995). Performance and burnout in intensive care units. Work and Stress, 9, 513–527.
- Klein, D. J., & Verbeke, W. (1999). Autonomic feedback in stressful environments: How do individual differences in autonomic feedback relate to burnout, job performance, and job attitudes in salespeople? Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 911–924.
- Lambert, S. J. (2000). Added benefits: The link between work-life benefits and organizational citizenship behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 43, 801–815.
- Latack, J. C., & Havlovic, S. J. (1992). Coping with job stress: a conceptual evaluation framework for coping measures. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 479–508.
- Lazaro, L., Shinn, M., & Robinson, P. E. (1985). Burnout, performance and job withdrawal behavior. Journal of Health and Human Resources Administration, 7, 213–234.
- Lee, R. T., & Ashforth, B. E. (1993). A further examination of managerial burnout: Toward an integrated model. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 14, 3–20.
- Lee, R. T., & Ashforth, B. E. (1996). A meta-analytic examination of the correlates of the three dimensions of job burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 123–133.
- Leiter, M. P. (1993). Burnout as a developmental process: Consideration of models. In W. B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, & T. Marek (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (pp. 237–250). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.
- Leiter, M. P., & Maslach, C. (1988). The impact of interpersonal environment of burnout and organizational commitment. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 9, 297–308.
- Leiter, M. P., & Schaufeli, W. B. (1996). Consistency of the burnout construct across occupations. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 9, 229–243.
- Makin, P., Cooper, C., & Cox, C. (1996). Organizations and the psychological contract. Westport, CT: Praeger.
- Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1986). Maslach Burnout Inventory ( 2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
- Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E., & Leiter, M.P. (1996). Maslach Burnout Inventory. Manual ( 3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
- Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 397–422.
- McGrath, J. E. (1976). Stress and behavior in organizations. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 1351–1396). Chicago: Rand-McNally.
- McKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M., & Fetter, R. (1991). Organizational citizenship behavior and objective productivity as determinants of managerial evaluations of salespersons' performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 123–150.
- Moore, J. E. (2000). Why is this happening? A causal attribution approach to work exhaustion consequences. Academy of Management Review, 25, 335–349.
- Morrison, E. W. (1994). Role definitions and organizational citizenship behavior: The importance of employee's perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 1543–1567.
- Motowidlo, S. J., & Van Scotter, J. R. (1994). Evidence that task performance should be distinguished from contextual performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 475–480.
- Munene, J. C. (1995). “Not-on-seat”: An investigation of some correlates of organizational citizenship behaviour in Nigeria. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 44, 111–122.
- Netemeyer, R. G., Johnston, M. W., & Burton, S. (1990). Analysis of role conflict and role ambiguity in a structural equations framework. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 148–157.
- Organ, D. W., & Paine, J. B. (1999). A new kind of performance for industrial and organizational psychology: Recent contributions to the study of organizational citizenship behavior. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 14; pp. 337–368). West Sussex: Wiley.
- Parker, P. A., & Kulik, J. A. (1995). Burnout, selfand supervisor-related job performance, and absenteeism among nurses. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 18, 581–599.
- Pines, A., & Aronson, E. (1988). Career burnout: Causes and cures. New York: Free Press.
- Podsakoff, P. M., & MacKenzie, S. B. (1994). Organizational citizenship behaviors and sales unit effectiveness. Journal of Marketing Research, 31, 351–363.
- Randall, M., & Scott, W. A. (1988). Burnout, job satisfaction, and job performance. Australian Psychologist, 23, 335–347.
- Sargent, L. D., & Terry, D. J. (2000). The moderating role of social support in Karasek's job strain model. Work & Stress, 14, 245–261.
- Schaubroeck, J., Cotton, J. L., & Jennings, K. R. (1989). Antecedents and consequences of role stress: A covariance structure analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 10, 35–58.
- Schaubroeck, J., & Fink, L. S. (1998). Facilitating and inhibiting effects of job control and social support on stress outcomes and role behavior: A contingency model. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19, 167–195.
- Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., Hoogduin, K., Schaap, C., & Kladler, A. (2001). On the clinical validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory and the Burnout Measure. Psychology & Health, 16, 565–582.
- Schaufeli, W. B., & Enzmann, D. (1998). The burnout companion to study and practice: A critical analysis. London: Taylor and Francis.
- Schnake, M. (1991). Organizational citizenship: A review, proposed model, and research agenda. Human Relations, 44, 735–759.
- Schreurs, P. J. G., & Taris, T. W. (1998). Construct validity of the demand-control model: A double cross-validation approach. Work & Stress, 12, 66–84.
- Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (1996). A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Shirom, A. (1989). Burnout in work organizations. In C. L. Cooper & I. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 25–48). Chichester: Wiley.
- Shirom, A. (2002). Job related burnout: A review. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp. 245–264). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
- Siegrist, J. (1996). Adverse health effects of high effort-low reward conditions. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1, 27–41.
- Singh, J., Goolsby, J. R., & Rhoads, G. K. (1994). Behavioral and psychological consequences of boundary spanning burnout for customer service representatives. Journal of Marketing Research, 31, 558–569.
- Smith, C.A., Organ, D.W., & Near, J.P. (1983). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature and antecedents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 653–663.
- Ursin, H. (1980). Personality, activation and somatic health: A new psychosomatic theory. In S. Levine & H. Ursin (Eds.), Coping and health (pp. 259–279). New York: Plenum Press.
10.1007/978-1-4684-1042-6_13 Google Scholar
- Van der Doef, M., & Maes, S. (1999). The job demand-control(-support) model and psychological well-being: A review of 20 years of empirical research. Work and Stress, 13, 87–114.
- Van Veldhoven, M., & Meijman, T. F. (1994). Het meten van psychosociale arbeidsbelasting met een vragenlijst: De vragenlijst beleving en beoordeling van de arbeid [The measurement of psychosocial strain at work: The questionnaire experience and evaluation of work]. Amsterdam: NIA.
- Veldhuizen, I. J. T., Gaillard, A. W. K., & de Vries J. (2003). The influence of mental fatigue on facial EMG activity during a simulated workday. Biological Psychology, 63, 59–78.
- Warr, P. B. (1990). Decision latitude, job demands, and employee well-being. Work and Stress, 4, 285–294.
- Wayne, S. J., Shore, L. M., & Liden, R. C. (1997). Perceived organizational support and leadermember exchange: A social exchange perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 40, 82–111.
- Wrzesniewski, A., & Dutton, J. (2001). Crafting a job: Employees as active crafters of their work. Academy of Management Review, 26, 179–201.
- Wright, T. A., & Bonett, D. G. (1997). The contribution of burnout to work performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 491–499.
- Wright, T. A., & Cropanzano, R. (1998). Emotional exhaustion as a predictor of job performance and voluntary turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 486–493.
- Zapf, D., Dormann, C., & Frese, M. (1996). Longitudinal studies in organizational stress research: A review of the literature with reference to methodological issues. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1, 145–169.
