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Inhalation of Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Ozone Causes Acute Arterial Vasoconstriction in Healthy Adults

Robert D. Brook

Robert D. Brook

From the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (R.D.B., S.R.); the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada (J.R.B., B.U., F.S.); Environment Canada, Toronto (J.R.B.); and Health Canada (R.V.), Ottawa, Canada.

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Jeffrey R. Brook

Jeffrey R. Brook

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Bruce Urch

Bruce Urch

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Renaud Vincent

Renaud Vincent

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Sanjay Rajagopalan

Sanjay Rajagopalan

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Frances Silverman

Frances Silverman

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Originally published11 Mar 2002https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000013838.94747.64Circulation. 2002;105:1534–1536

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Abstract

Background— Fine particulate air pollution and ozone are associated with increased cardiovascular events. To help explain the mechanism behind these observations, we investigated the effect of air pollution exposure on vascular function.

Methods and Results— Twenty-five healthy adults underwent a randomized, double-blind, crossover study comparing the vascular response to the 2-hour inhalation of ≈150 μg/m³ of concentrated ambient fine particles (CAP) plus ozone (120 ppb) versus the response to the inhalation of filtered air. High-resolution vascular ultrasonography was used to measure alterations in brachial artery diameter, endothelial-dependent flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) and endothelial-independent nitroglycerin-mediated dilatation (NMD). Exposure to CAP plus ozone caused a significant brachial artery vasoconstriction compared with filtered air inhalation (−0.09±0.15 mm versus +0.01±0.18 mm, P=0.03). There were no significant differences in FMD (+0.29±4.11% versus −0.03±6.63%, P=0.88), NMD (+3.87±5.43% versus +3.46±7.92%, P=0.83), or blood pressure responses between exposures.

Conclusions— Short-term inhalation of fine particulate air pollution and ozone at concentrations that occur in the urban environment causes acute conduit artery vasoconstriction.

Fine particulate air pollution <2.5 μm in diameter (PM_2.5) and ozone (O₃) are associated with increased cardiovascular mortality.¹ Adults with underlying cardiopulmonary disease are at highest risk for acute cardiac events² because even transient PM_2.5 exposure may trigger myocardial infarctions in susceptible people.³ To reduce the substantial global health impact of air pollution, it is crucial to expand our limited understanding of the biological mechanisms underlying these observations.⁴

We recently demonstrated increases in plasma endothelin (ET) 1 and 3 after short-term exposure to PM_2.5 and O₃ in animals⁵ and humans (R. Vincent, PhD, unpublished data, 2001). ET is a potent vasoconstrictor associated with vascular endothelial dysfunction and an adverse cardiovascular prognosis at increased systemic level.⁶ However, venous ET concentrations may not accurately reflect actual physiological alterations in arterial function. Therefore, to determine if exposure to common air pollutants indeed alters vascular function in a manner that promotes cardiac events, we investigated the effect of PM_2.5 and O₃ inhalation, at environmentally relevant concentrations, on basal arterial tone and reactivity.

Methods

The study was approved by the Human Subjects Review Committee of the University of Toronto and was performed at the Gage Occupational and Environmental Health Unit in Toronto. Subjects signed an informed consent form and were 18- to 50-year-old nonsmokers without cardiovascular disease or risk factors. Subjects were excluded for fasting glucose ≥126 mg/dL, total cholesterol ≥240 mg/dL, and for use of hypertension or lipid medications, antioxidants, folate, steroids, fish oil, or aspirin.

Exposure Protocol

Subjects fasted ≥8 hours before and during each visit. Studies were performed at identical times during the morning to avoid the impact of diurnal variation on vascular tone/reactivity. Pre-exposure brachial artery vasoreactivity studies and blood pressure measurements were performed on arrival. Each subject then received 2 randomized, 2-hour exposures on separate days in the human exposure facility: a combined concentration of ≈150 μg/m³ of ambient PM_2.5 (CAP) plus O₃ (120 ppb); a control filtered air (FA) exposure of zero PM_2.5 and very low O₃. The PM_2.5 and O₃ levels selected represent conditions that occur during peak air pollution events and in certain outdoor microenvironments.⁷ Two subjects received 2.5 hours of CAP+O₃, and 1 subject was exposed to 1 hour of FA. Within 10 minutes after exposure, brachial artery vasoreactivity studies and blood pressure measurements were repeated. This single postexposure analysis did not allow us to determine the duration of alterations in vascular function, but it was chosen to investigate the immediate impact of air pollution inhalation and to minimize the potential influence of other confounding variables on arterial reactivity (eg, meals). At least 2 days later, subjects repeated the protocol, crossed-over to the alternate exposure type. Subjects were blinded to and unaware of the exposure conditions during the studies.

Human Exposure Facility

PM_2.5 exposures were produced with the use of a high-flow multistage virtual impactor system, which utilizes ambient particles drawn from outside the laboratory. O₃ was produced by an arc generator and was introduced to the exposure upstream of the concentrator. The human exposure facility has been described previously.⁸

Brachial Artery Vasoreactivity Studies

Brachial artery vasoreactivity measurements were performed as previously described using an HP 4500 ultrasound system (Hewlett Packard) with a 7.5 linear array transducer.⁹ Basal brachial artery diameter (BAD) was measured after subjects rested supine for ≥10 minutes. In previous validation studies, the mean difference between BAD measurements performed on 2 separate mornings was 0.04±0.001 mm.⁹ Endothelial-dependent and -independent vasomotion were determined by flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) and nitroglycerin-mediated dilatation (NMD), respectively.

When analyzing images, the technician was blinded to subject identity and exposure type. The alterations in vascular function after each exposure were determined by subtracting pre-exposure BAD, FMD, NMD, and blood pressures from the respective postexposure values. The vascular responses of 1 subject were not included in the analyses because of excessive variation (>2 standard deviations) in the baseline pre-exposure BAD between visit days, which likely reflected an error in imaging site.

Statistical Methods

Data were stored and analyzed using SPSS 9.0 for Windows (SPSS, Inc). The vascular alterations after CAP+O₃ were compared with those after FA by 2-tailed paired t tests with a significance level of 0.05.

Results

Subject characteristics are presented in Table 1. Concentrations of PM_2.5 and O₃ during exposures are shown in Table 2. There were no significant differences in gaseous pollutant levels (CO, NO_x, SO₂) between exposure days.

**Table 1106948.** Subject Characteristics
Values are reported as mean±SD.
Number	25 (15 male/10 female)
Age, y	34.9±10
Body mass index, kg/m²	23.6±2.87
Blood pressure, mm Hg	120.6/71.3±13.4/9.5
Total cholesterol, mg/dL	183.1±29.5
LDL-C, mg/dL	110.4±31.6
HDL-C, mg/dL	52.5±15.1
Triglycerides, mg/dL	101±53.2
Glucose, mg/dL	81.6±6.7

**Table 2106948.** Fine Particle and Ozone Concentrations
PM_2.5, μg/m³		O₃, ppb
Filtered Air	CAP+O₃	Filtered Air	CAP+O₃
Values are reported as mean±SD.
1.6±1.7	153.0±34.8	8.5±5.3	120.3±2.8

Vascular and blood pressure responses are shown in Table 3. Pre-exposure BAD showed no significant day-to-day variation (0.03 mm). Inhalation of CAP+O₃ caused a significant reduction in the postexposure BAD compared with the response after FA (Figure). There was a significant brachial artery vasoconstriction after CAP+O₃ inhalation (P=0.007), whereas FA did not alter BAD. FMD, NMD, and blood pressure responses did not significantly differ between exposure types.

**Table 3106948.** Vascular Responses After Exposures
Test	Filtered Air			CAP+O₃			P^*
Test	Before	After	Δ	Before	After	Δ	P^*
Values are reported as mean±SD. Δ indicates pre-exposure to postexposure change.
*Filtered air Δ vs CAP+ozone Δ, by 2-tailed, paired t test.
†P=0.007 for post-BAD (CAP+ozone) vs pre-BAD (CAP+ozone), by 2-tailed, paired t test.
BAD, mm	3.89±0.68	3.90±0.68	0.01±0.18	3.92±0.65	3.82±0.62^†	−0.09±0.15	0.03
FMD, %	3.61±4.27	3.57±6.49	−0.03 ±6.63	4.22±4.52	4.52±3.69	0.29±4.11	0.88
NMD, %	14.69±6.40	18.15±8.94	3.46±7.92	14.88±5.25	18.76±6.12	3.87±5.43	0.83
SBP, mm Hg	120.5±13.5	121.3±8.9	0.8±10.3	120.4±10.4	120.8±11.8	0.4±8.6	0.61
DBP, mm Hg	71.2±8.7	70.8±9.2	−0.4±7.3	70.0±9.9	70.9±9.0	0.9±7.2	0.77

BAD alterations after exposures. After CAP+O₃, 18 of the 24 subjects responded with a BAD vasoconstriction versus dilatation, a greater BAD vasoconstriction, or a blunted dilatation compared with FA. Bars represent mean BAD changes.

Discussion

We have demonstrated for the first time that inhalation of common air pollutants affects the systemic vasculature of humans. Short-term exposure to PM_2.5 and O₃ at levels that occur in urban environments causes acute conduit artery vasoconstriction without producing immediate alterations in endothelial-dependent or -independent vasomotion. This finding is important because it suggests that alterations in arterial tone may be a relevant mechanism contributing to air pollution–mediated acute cardiac events and because it provides evidence that the observations shown by large epidemiological studies are biologically plausible.¹

Relevance of Conduit Artery Vasoconstriction

It is reasonable to suspect that the coronary vasculature may respond similarly to air pollution exposure because brachial and coronary reactivity strongly correlate (r=0.79, P<0.001 for brachial versus coronary FMD).¹⁰ Even so, a reduction in coronary diameter of this relatively small magnitude (≈0.1 mm) would have minimal impact on healthy adults. However, congruent with epidemiological findings that individuals at increased risk for acute air pollution–related cardiac events generally have pre-existing cardiovascular disease, ² this degree of sudden coronary vasoconstriction could promote cardiac ischemia in those with underlying flow-limiting obstructive lesions or could trigger instability of susceptible plaques.¹¹ Furthermore, the vasculature of patients with coronary risk factors is known to hyper-react to a variety of vasoconstrictors,^12,13 which potentially increases their susceptibility for acute cardiac events after air pollution exposure. Additional investigations in the coronary circulation and in high-risk individuals are needed to confirm these hypotheses.

Mechanisms and Mediators of Vasoconstriction

Because this is the first study to investigate the effects of air pollution on the vasculature, a more complete understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying our observations and the specific pollutants involved requires further investigation. Substantial evidence links increased PM_2.5 alone with cardiac mortality.¹ However, our initial air pollution exposure was chosen to be PM_2.5 plus O₃ because this mixture occurs in “real-life” settings. At present, an effect on the vasculature partially mediated by O₃ cannot be ruled out. Determinations of the relative importance of PM_2.5 versus O₃ and specific components in fine particulate matter await follow-up studies now that a meaningful effect of urban air pollution on vascular function has been demonstrated.

Potential biological mechanisms for the vasoconstriction include a reflex increase in sympathetic nervous system activity via stimulation of pulmonary vagal afferents¹⁴ or an acute increase in vascular ET release, analogous to cigarette smoking.¹⁵ PM_2.5 inhalation has been shown to induce systemic inflammation and cytokine production,¹⁶ possibly related to free radical activity of components in particulate matter.¹⁷ In turn, these have the capacity to enhance vascular ET expression by direct mechanisms or via activation of oxidative stress pathways.⁶ Indeed, we have previously demonstrated the presence of increased plasma ET levels acutely after PM_2.5 exposure.⁵

In conclusion, alterations in arterial tone and reactivity in response to PM_2.5 and O₃ exposure is a new arena for future research into the biological mechanisms linking air pollution with acute and potentially chronic cardiovascular events. Further investigations are needed to confirm and extend our findings to the coronary circulation and to subjects with existing heart disease.

*Drs R. Brook and J. Brook contributed equally. Dr Rajagopalan contributed equally as a senior investigator.

This study was funded by a contribution from Health Canada Toxic Substance Research Initiative and Air Quality Health Effects Research Section, Government of Canada.

Footnotes

Correspondence to Robert Brook, 3918 Taubman Center, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. E-mail [email protected]

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Rajaii F, Khaki A, Khaki A, Khorshid F, Borhani N, Jfraii H, Haghdust H and Gheibi N (2008) Histopathologic Effects of Sulfur Dioxide in Mouse Liver Following the Chronic and Acute Exposure, Journal of Biological Sciences, 10.3923/jbs.2008.1241.1245, 8:7, (1241-1245), Online publication date: 15-Sep-2008.

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Mills N, Robinson S, Fokkens P, Leseman D, Miller M, Anderson D, Freney E, Heal M, Donovan R, Blomberg A, Sandström T, MacNee W, Boon N, Donaldson K, Newby D and Cassee F (2008) Exposure to Concentrated Ambient Particles Does Not Affect Vascular Function in Patients with Coronary Heart Disease, Environmental Health Perspectives, 10.1289/ehp.11016, 116:6, (709-715), Online publication date: 1-Jun-2008.

Auchincloss A, Diez Roux A, Dvonch J, Brown P, Barr R, Daviglus M, Goff D, Kaufman J and O’Neill M (2008) Associations between Recent Exposure to Ambient Fine Particulate Matter and Blood Pressure in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA), Environmental Health Perspectives, 10.1289/ehp.10899, 116:4, (486-491), Online publication date: 1-Apr-2008.

Sarnat J, Marmur A, Klein M, Kim E, Russell A, Sarnat S, Mulholland J, Hopke P and Tolbert P (2008) Fine Particle Sources and Cardiorespiratory Morbidity: An Application of Chemical Mass Balance and Factor Analytical Source-Apportionment Methods, Environmental Health Perspectives, 10.1289/ehp.10873, 116:4, (459-466), Online publication date: 1-Apr-2008.

Ortiz Rubio A and Lozano Polo J (2008) Responsabilidad de los profesionales en la salud ambiental, FMC - Formación Médica Continuada en Atención Primaria, 10.1016/S1134-2072(08)70797-7, 15:4, (239-249), Online publication date: 1-Apr-2008.

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Fang S, Eisen E, Cavallari J, Mittleman M and Christiani D (2008) Acute Changes in Vascular Function Among Welders Exposed to Metal-Rich Particulate Matter, Epidemiology, 10.1097/EDE.0b013e31816334dc, 19:2, (217-225), Online publication date: 1-Mar-2008.

Rundell K and Caviston R (2008) Ultrafine and Fine Particulate Matter Inhalation Decreases Exercise Performance in Healthy Subjects, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31815ef98b, 22:1, (2-5), Online publication date: 1-Jan-2008.

Park B, Donaldson K, Duffin R, Tran L, Kelly F, Mudway I, Morin J, Guest R, Jenkinson P, Samaras Z, Giannouli M, Kouridis H and Martin P (2008) Hazard and Risk Assessment of a Nanoparticulate Cerium Oxide-Based Diesel Fuel Additive—A Case Study, Inhalation Toxicology, 10.1080/08958370801915309, 20:6, (547-566), Online publication date: 1-Jan-2008.

Gong H, Linn W, Clark K, Anderson K, Sioutas C, Alexis N, Cascio W and Devlin R (2008) Exposures of Healthy and Asthmatic Volunteers to Concentrated Ambient Ultrafine Particles in Los Angeles, Inhalation Toxicology, 10.1080/08958370801911340, 20:6, (533-545), Online publication date: 1-Jan-2008.

Yan Y, Huang C, Chen W, Wu M and Cheng T (2008) Effects of Diesel Exhaust Particles on Left Ventricular Function in Isoproterenol-Induced Myocardial Injury and Healthy Rats, Inhalation Toxicology, 10.1080/08958370701861082, 20:2, (199-203), Online publication date: 1-Jan-2008.

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Chahine T, Baccarelli A, Litonjua A, Wright R, Suh H, Gold D, Sparrow D, Vokonas P and Schwartz J (2007) Particulate Air Pollution, Oxidative Stress Genes, and Heart Rate Variability in an Elderly Cohort, Environmental Health Perspectives, 10.1289/ehp.10318, 115:11, (1617-1622), Online publication date: 1-Nov-2007.

Briet M, Collin C, Laurent S, Tan A, Azizi M, Agharazii M, Jeunemaitre X, Alhenc-Gelas F and Boutouyrie P (2007) Endothelial Function and Chronic Exposure to Air Pollution in Normal Male Subjects, Hypertension, 50:5, (970-976), Online publication date: 1-Nov-2007.

FRANCHINI M and MANNUCCI P (2007) Short‐term effects of air pollution on cardiovascular diseases: outcomes and mechanisms, Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2007.02750.x, 5:11, (2169-2174), Online publication date: 1-Nov-2007.

Simkhovich B, Marjoram P, Kleinman M and Kloner R (2007) Direct and acute cardiotoxicity of ultrafine particles in young adult and old rat hearts, Basic Research in Cardiology, 10.1007/s00395-007-0681-0, 102:6, (467-475), Online publication date: 1-Nov-2007.

Dales R, Liu L, Szyszkowicz M, Dalipaj M, Willey J, Kulka R and Ruddy T (2007) Particulate air pollution and vascular reactivity: the bus stop study, International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 10.1007/s00420-007-0199-7, 81:2, (159-164), Online publication date: 17-Oct-2007.

Knuckles T and Dreher K (2007) Fine Oil Combustion Particle Bioavailable Constituents Induce Molecular Profiles of Oxidative Stress, Altered Function, and Cellular Injury in Cardiomyocytes, Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 10.1080/15287390701459213, 70:21, (1824-1837), Online publication date: 28-Sep-2007.

Mills N, Törnqvist H, Gonzalez M, Vink E, Robinson S, Söderberg S, Boon N, Donaldson K, Sandström T, Blomberg A and Newby D (2007) Ischemic and Thrombotic Effects of Dilute Diesel-Exhaust Inhalation in Men with Coronary Heart Disease, New England Journal of Medicine, 10.1056/NEJMoa066314, 357:11, (1075-1082), Online publication date: 13-Sep-2007.

Törnqvist H, Mills N, Gonzalez M, Miller M, Robinson S, Megson I, MacNee W, Donaldson K, Söderberg S, Newby D, Sandström T and Blomberg A (2007) Persistent Endothelial Dysfunction in Humans after Diesel Exhaust Inhalation, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 10.1164/rccm.200606-872OC, 176:4, (395-400), Online publication date: 15-Aug-2007.

Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Vincent R, Mora-Tiscareño A, Franco-Lira M, Henríquez-Roldán C, Barragán-Mejía G, Garrido-García L, Camacho-Reyes L, Valencia-Salazar G, Paredes R, Romero L, Osnaya H, Villarreal-Calderón R, Torres-Jardón R, Hazucha M and Reed W (2007) Elevated Plasma Endothelin-1 and Pulmonary Arterial Pressure in Children Exposed to Air Pollution, Environmental Health Perspectives, 10.1289/ehp.9641, 115:8, (1248-1253), Online publication date: 1-Aug-2007.

Brook R (2007) Why Physicians Who Treat Hypertension Should Know More About Air Pollution, The Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 10.1111/j.1524-6175.2007.07187.x, 9:8, (629-635), Online publication date: 1-Aug-2007.

Stölzel M, Breitner S, Cyrys J, Pitz M, Wölke G, Kreyling W, Heinrich J, Wichmann H and Peters A (2006) Daily mortality and particulate matter in different size classes in Erfurt, Germany, Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology, 10.1038/sj.jes.7500538, 17:5, (458-467), Online publication date: 1-Aug-2007.

Cozzi E, Wingard C, Cascio W, Devlin R, Miles J, Bofferding A, Lust R, Van Scott M and Henriksen R (2007) Effect of ambient particulate matter exposure on hemostasis, Translational Research, 10.1016/j.trsl.2006.12.009, 149:6, (324-332), Online publication date: 1-Jun-2007.

Herner J, Robertson W and Ayala A (2007) Investigation of Ultrafine Particle Number Measurements from a Clean Diesel Truck Using the European PMP Protocol SAE World Congress & Exhibition, 10.4271/2007-01-1114,

Liu L, Ruddy T, Dalipaj M, Szyszkowicz M, You H, Poon R, Wheeler A and Dales R (2007) Influence of Personal Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution on Cardiovascular Physiology and Biomarkers of Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Subjects With Diabetes, Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 10.1097/JOM.0b013e31803220ef, 49:3, (258-265), Online publication date: 1-Mar-2007.

Baccarelli A, Zanobetti A, Martinelli I, Grillo P, Hou L, Lanzani G, Mannucci P, Bertazzi P and Schwartz J (2007) Air Pollution, Smoking, and Plasma Homocysteine, Environmental Health Perspectives, 10.1289/ehp.9517, 115:2, (176-181), Online publication date: 1-Feb-2007.

BACCARELLI A, ZANOBETTI A, MARTINELLI I, GRILLO P, HOU L, GIACOMINI S, BONZINI M, LANZANI G, MANNUCCI P, BERTAZZI P and SCHWARTZ J (2007) Effects of exposure to air pollution on blood coagulation, Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2007.02300.x, 5:2, (252-260), Online publication date: 1-Feb-2007.

Samet J and Krewski D (2007) Health Effects Associated With Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution, Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 10.1080/15287390600884644, 70:3-4, (227-242), Online publication date: 1-Feb-2007.

Hansen C, Sheykhzade M, Møller P, Folkmann J, Amtorp O, Jonassen T and Loft S (2007) Diesel exhaust particles induce endothelial dysfunction in apoE−/− mice, Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 10.1016/j.taap.2006.10.032, 219:1, (24-32), Online publication date: 1-Feb-2007.

Scharrer E, Hessel H, Kronseder A, Guth W, Rolinski B, Jörres R, Radon K, Schierl R, Angerer P and Nowak D (2006) Heart rate variability, hemostatic and acute inflammatory blood parameters in healthy adults after short-term exposure to welding fume, International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 10.1007/s00420-006-0127-2, 80:4, (265-272), Online publication date: 19-Jan-2007.

Brook R Is air pollution a cause of cardiovascular disease? Updated review and controversies, Reviews on Environmental Health, 10.1515/REVEH.2007.22.2.115, 22:2

Scapellato M and Lotti M (2008) Short-Term Effects of Particulate Matter: An Inflammatory Mechanism?, Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 10.1080/10408440701385622, 37:6, (461-487), Online publication date: 1-Jan-2007.

Cascio W, Cozzi E, Hazarika S, Devlin R, Henriksen R, Lust R, Van Scott M and Wingard C (2008) Cardiac and Vasular Changes in Mice After Exposure to Ultrafine Particulate Matter, Inhalation Toxicology, 10.1080/08958370701493456, 19:sup1, (67-73), Online publication date: 1-Jan-2007.

Rundell K, Hoffman J, Caviston R, Bulbulian R and Hollenbach A (2010) Inhalation of Ultrafine and Fine Particulate Matter Disrupts Systemic Vascular Function, Inhalation Toxicology, 10.1080/08958370601051727, 19:2, (133-140), Online publication date: 1-Jan-2007.

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April 2, 2002
Vol 105, Issue 13

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https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000013838.94747.64

PMID: 11927516

Originally publishedMarch 11, 2002

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Inhalation of Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Ozone Causes Acute Arterial Vasoconstriction in Healthy Adults

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