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On 8 August 1918, trench warfare suddenly became obsolete. British, Canadian, Australian and French troops, backed by 456 tanks and 2,000 guns and howitzers, overwhelmed the Germans on a 14-mile front east of Amiens.
For the first time since the war began, a large German force collapsed under fire. The Allies advanced eight miles, captured 400 guns and took 12,000 prisoners.
Over the next 100 days, the Germans recovered and often fought as stubbornly as ever. But the Allies, strengthened by American troops, had developed new tactics and new weapons. To their own surprise, they pushed the Germans back, very slowly and very bloodily, to the Belgian border.
“August 8th was the blackest day for the German army in the history of this war,” the German commander, Erich von Ludendorff, wrote later.
“Whole bodies of our men surrendered to single troopers, or isolated squadrons.
“Retiring troops, meeting a fresh division going bravely into action, shouted out things like ‘blackleg’ and ‘you’re prolonging the war’, expressions that were to be heard again later.”
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new galleryShow all 71
1 /71First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Dogs wearing gas masks
Two German soldiers lie in anticipation of Allied forces with their dogs. In a trench inside of North Germany, German forces are prepared for a dangerous poison gas attack. Both soldiers and dogs don state-of-the-art gas masks in this image.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Soldiers removing lice
In the well-constructed German trenches, a small group of soldiers attempt to remove the lice from their uniforms. Lice were a very common problem in the dank conditions present in the trenches during WW1.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
An aerial dogfight
An aerial dogfight between at least 5 planes can be observed here. Dogfighting was the main method of attack between aircraft because the developments in aerial technology made it increasingly difficult to drop projectiles onto another plane. This dogfight took place over the Western Front, most likely near to France or Britain.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
The winged surveyor
A pigeon armed with a camera for aerial surveillance over France, about 1915
© adoc-photos/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Bayonet practice
A British Sergeant Major displays how to effectively utilise a bayonet in a training demonstration. This fighting instruction was necessary for most soldiers-to-be since this would have been their first experience of conflict.
© CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Washed-up submarines
A pair of German U-boats, both which had been sunk during the war, washed up within mere feet of each other on the Cornish coastline, near to Falmouth.
© CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Dog has his paw bandaged by soldier
A dog working for the Red Cross charity hospital service has his injured paw bandaged by an Allied soldier. The Red Cross organisation provided health care for thousands of soldiers, helping to reduce the monumental WW1 death toll.
© Harriet Chalmers Adams/National Geographic Society/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Austrian aircraft dives
A view from below of an early Austrian aircraft. This fighter plane heavily resembles a bird, indicating the immediate progression of aircraft and displaying how new and revolutionary they were at the time.
© Brown &Amp Dawson/National Geographic Society/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Soldier holds owl in a trench
A French member of the 92nd Infantry Regiment holds an Eagle Owl in a trench. The use of animals during the First World War was still evident as all involved nations struggled to immediately adapt to the more modern type of warfare. Horses were still used in cavalry charges, despite being mercilessly mowed down by machine guns as old methods met new technology.
© adoc-photos/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Plane attacks tank
Although aircraft were not initially believed to be an effective offensive strategy in the theatre of war, this plane shoots at an operational tank, causing it to burst into smoke and flames.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Soldiers being given flowers
Women dressed all in white giving soldiers flowers. These soldiers are marching through London on a final parade before they head to war.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Half-submerged tank
Despite being created for the traversal of boggy, war-torn farmlands typical of the First World War, this tank is returned to nature as it is submerged into the earth.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Escape from a submarine
A group of navy men abandon ship; escaping miraculously from a sinking submarine using one of the ship's boats. A further man is pictured to be clambering down a suspended rope to make his exit.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Italian soldiers climb with skis
A troop of Italian soldiers clamber up a snow-covered slope, shouldering skis and other snow-proof equipment. This scenario presents an alternative viewpoint of the First World War, showing that the theatre of war consisted of more than just boggy grassland.
© Comando Supremo, Italian Army/National Geographic Society/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Naval fitness training
Young navy recruits undergo fitness training. This was a rigorous procedure to select the fittest recruits, and also to make all other recruits fitter; ready for naval service.
© United States Navy Department/National Geographic Society/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Poison gas and Fire
A bird's eye view of Flanders, Belgium shows the devastation wrought by a combined poison gas and flame attack on the German trench. This offensive was orchestrated by the French forces.
© CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
US navy convoy sails Atlantic
A convoy of US ships patrols the Atlantic Ocean. Their risk - and the danger they posed in turn - is in contrast to the serene beauty of sunlight rays piercing the cloud.
© Burnell Poole/National Geographic Society/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Soldiers venture into ruined town
A small company of soldiers travel into the occupied town of Cambrai, which lies in ruins. Rubble and debris line the streets, whilst glass no longer fills the windows. Smoke and dust from the destruction and ongoing fighting creates a dense camouflage preventing the soldiers from seeing very far, or being seen.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Italian bomber plane in New York
An early Italian bomber plane flies by the Woolworth building in New York. The image here has been damaged and has aged significantly, as can be observed by the quality of the paper on which the photograph is printed.
© Edwin Levick/National Geographic Society/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
A crowd of German POWs
In mid 1918, towards the climax of the so-called 'Great War', a large crowd containing many German Prisoners Of War (POWs) , captured by the British forces throughout the 4-year period, is photographed. It is reported that many thousands of German soldiers were captured during the conflict.
© Underwood & Underwood/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Tanks fail to cross the trenches
Multiple tanks, these being made by Renault, have been defeated by the trenches. The two tanks most prominent in the image are tilted onto their noses, after failing to successfully cross a trench line and therefore upending into the trenches, only to be abandoned.
© adoc-photos/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
USS New Hampshire fires
The navy ship USS New Hampshire fires a large weapon at an opposing vessel. These navy ships were heavily equipped with well-developed weaponry capable of easily sinking faraway vessels.
© Underwood &Amp Underwood/National Geographic Society/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Navy cooking training
Young recruits from the United States Navy are trained to cook and create dishes in preparation for life on deck. Long lasting and resilient foods are prepared in order to save time, space and resources on long voyages.
© United States Navy Department/National Geographic Society/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Biplane dropping bomb by hand
A German biplane drops a light bomb by hand. In the early years of the First World War, technology was not developed enough to implement automatic bomb delivery systems.
© Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
US enlist recruitment poster
This American recruitment poster implores US citizens to sign up for the US armed forces to fight against the 'Mad Brute' of Germany. Powerful propaganda was not uncommon during the First World War period; it was rather used to influence, shape and measure public opinion.
© Heritage Images/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
German forces escape poison gas
A German storm trooper unit emerges from a large, dense cloud of poison gas. This particular gas cloud was set down by the German army to provide cover for their own forces.
© Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Sailors battle a fire on deck
A fire on an operational vessel is being fought by the sailors on board. This damage caused by a torpedo missile or another ship in battle has caused the ship to rock, or tilt to one side as depicted by the excess wake on the boat's starboard (right) side.
© Underwood And Underwood/National Geographic Society/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Shot down French aircraft
A French plane shot down by a German biplane during the Battle of Verdun. A long trail of smoke indicates the combustibility of the materials that early planes were fashioned from; such as taut leather. The often jagged and irregular lines on the ground below are the trench lines; scars on the earth of which some still remain today.
© adoc-photos/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
An aerial camera in use
The co-pilot of a plane with an Aeroplane Graflex camera during the First World War
© CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
HMS Cornwallis in action
A member of the British Navy; HMS Cornwallis was engaged in the Gallipoli offensive and can be seen to be firing onto the shore in this image.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
War and technology
A pre-WW1 invention, a mono-plane flies overhead as a steam train travels below. This combination of differing transport mediums provides an indication of the early technological developments as WW1 began.
© O.S. Nock; Milepost 92 ½/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
French-Canadian army recruitment poster
An army recruitment poster. The text roughly translates to; 'sign up for the victory loan'. It appeals to those living in Canada to sign up to help fight with the Allied forces.
© Swim Ink 2, LLC/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
USS New York on duty
The battleship class vessel; USS New York is bathed in salt water on duty. Battleships were one of the highest class of naval vessel, and renowned for their size and destructive ability.
© James B. Gilmer/National Geographic Society/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Soldiers taking shelter on a slope
A combination of British and French troops came together during the offensive on the Gallipoli Peninsula to defeat Turkish forces protecting the area. They are making the most of the mountainous terrain to shield their position.
© Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Women working in a shell factory
A look inside one small part of a munitions factory. The two women shown working here are engaged in crafting operational shells to drop on the German trench line in an attempt to break the stalemate.
© Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
US navy sailors practice shooting
A team of US Navy sailors practice operating a large gun attached to a boat in New York harbour. Due to the motion of vessels in tidal waters, practice was necessary to ensure accuracy on the ocean.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
British forces await artillery
British forces, known as 'Tommies' to most other forces, await the arrival of a heavy artillery unit. When fully operational, this would likely be used to suppress German attack and to thin the numbers to prepare for a British offense.
© adoc-photos/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Naval airship before duty
This particular Airship was used for naval observations during the aerial shelling of the Dardanelles region in Turkey. Many like it were used during the disastrous Gallipoli campaign in Turkey.
© Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
A sea patrol with multiple vehicles
A collective patrol including a number of planes and vessels navigate the seas, as well as maintaining a vigilant watch to protect their convoy and to weaken opposition forces.
© Jane Watts Fisher/National Geographic Society/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
A British machine gun unit
Two British machine gunners operate a machine gun whilst taking cover in a trench. They are wearing gas masks to protect against potential poison gas attack. Machine guns were responsible for many thousands of casualties throughout the war and often devastated counter attacks.
© Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Making shells in a munitions plant
Workers in a munitions plant manufacture steel shells which will later be dropped in their thousands on German trench lines. Surprisingly, a large proportion of the shells offloaded during the First World War didn't explode; and some are still dangerous today.
© Press Illustrating Service/National Geographic Society/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
German plane crashes
A German biplane crash lands near to a French airport during the war. This close-up shot of a WW1 plane shows how flimsy they were, usually built from leather and taut fabrics rather than metal alloys.
© CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
American navy recruitment poster
A further US recruitment poster; this time focusing on the Naval forces in an attempt to fill out the navy to aid the fight against the German U-boats.
© K.J. Historical/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
A line of willing army recruits
At one of many British recruiting offices, a large queue of British men line up with the correct documents to pledge their allegiance and services to the British army to fight against the German, Austro-Hungarian and Turkish Empires.
© Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Mortar cannon firing
In the infamous Somme region of France, a French 270 millimetre mortar cannon bombards the German trenches, inspiring terror, destruction and lowering enemy morale. A crane needs to be used to transport the large ammunition rounds to feed this beast.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Munitions advertisement poster
A poster to encourage enrolment for the position of munitions workers to craft shells and other weapons. Women in particular were relied on due to the apparent shortage of men because of the later introduced conscription into the army.
© Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Takeoff from a ship
In an impressive feat of piloting prowess, a British biplane takes off using a makeshift runway, supported by two large guns of an aircraft carrier. This aircraft was most likely a scouting plane, as can be deduced from the apparent lack of visible weaponry.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
The Gallipoli landing
A variety of troops from all different Allied forces were involved in the Gallipoli landing pictured. Orchestrated by future wartime PM Winston Churchill, this operation was a complete failure, particularly for the British. The harsh terrain shown was very different to that of the flat plains of France.
© Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Tank travels over a trench
A British tank, typical of the latter years of WW1, maneuvers its way over a trench system during the Battle of Cambrai. Also known as 'Landships', these armoured vehicles were designed to traverse the boggy terrain of the French war-torn countryside.
© Underwood & Underwood/Underwood & Underwood/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Aircraft mechanic recruitment poster
A Canadian recruitment poster, pining for 'skilled mechanics' to repair damaged aircraft or to manufacture new planes. The need for aircraft mechanics became increasingly apparent as the role of aircraft in the war grew exponentially.
© David Pollack/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
031_rocketmortar.jpg
A French soldier uses a mortar cannon to launch a torpedo rocket. Just one of the many forms of artillery, these mortar cannons were often accompanied by barrages of highly explosive shells.
© Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Tank tangled in barbed wire
A First World War tank becomes entangled within a mangled heap of barbed wire on the battlefield. Barbed wire was utilised very heavily throughout WW1, and was designed to become increasingly more difficult to get through when shelled or affected by explosives of any sort.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Torpedoed boat sinking
The Covington is sunk after being torpedoed. This US troop transport vessel was hit during June, 1918.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Camouflaged soldiers
American forces hide out in a trench, behind a line of crude yet effective camouflage fashioned out of branches, twigs and leaves. This trench line may be considered to be more poorly built than other trenches, since this is a front-line trench, which would have been built in less time, under pressure from the opposition.
© CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
An eloquent German trench
A number of German soldiers occupy an elaborately constructed German trench system on the Western Front. Unlike some other, more hastily built trench systems, this has structurally sound and aesthetically pleasing walls and floors, which also improve the levels of sanitation and morale for those living and fighting in these trenches.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Aftermath of the war
Aftermath: This street corner in Poelcapelle, Belgium is left with little more than a heavily damaged tank, and scorched, dead remnants of trees. Unfortunately this image is representative of much of the French and Belgian landscape after the First World War.
© CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Troops go 'over the top'
A company of Allied Canadian soldiers go 'over the top', leaving the comparative safety of their trenches to advance into the perilous wasteland of 'No-Man's-Land' in an attempt to oust enemy forces to reclaim lost ground.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Recruitment poster for manufacturing positions
A First World War recruitment poster advertises the need for more aircraft, and therefore more workers in the manufacturing industries. Women are targeted specifically here due the general shortage in men because of the conscription causing the majority of men to be forced to join the army.
© Heritage Images/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
British tank in action
Somewhere in war-stricken France, 1916, a British tank advances into enemy territory, heading an offensive to gain vital ground in this War of Attrition.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
British lookout
A British soldier finds himself close to enemy lines. Hiding in the trenches and keeping his head low to avoid attracting unwanted attention, he cautiously scouts No-Man's-Land for any indication of enemy activity.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
American submarine on operation
An American submarine undergoing operations in the open sea. Submarine vessels were used primarily to counter the effect of Germany's powerful navy, which was nearly equal in size to that of the world-renowned British naval force by the eve of WW1. Submarines sank battleship class vessels using torpedo missiles.
© Lebrecht/Lebrecht Music & Arts/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Upturned German plane
A German biplane is brought down just behind American lines, where it crashes and stands on its central propeller. Instead of bursting into flames when it crashed, this biplane remains fairly intact.
© CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Navy recruitment poster
A poster recruits men to join the naval forces; specifically in the signals branch, using coding techniques and Morse code to transfer information.
© Heritage Images/Corbis
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Abandoned tank
Nothing left in the tank: This armoured vehicle was abandoned by its operators after it ran out of fuel. This presents yet another problem with these machines.
© CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Field Cannon use
A French "37" Field cannon is mounted on a parapet ready for use against advancing forces in a second-line trench. This weapon is able to boast a range of over a mile, as well as an impressive accuracy rating of greater than that of the typical WW1 rifle.
© CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
A submarine surfaces
A German U-boat submarine surfaces, emerging from the rough ocean waters in the open sea.
© CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Inside view of a tank
A rare look inside of a US tank with its hatches open. Both the gunner and skipper of this so-called 'Whippet tank' are present to indicate the less than spacious conditions inside.
© CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Recreational activities
A group of officers play cards on the balcony of a Red Cross hospital in London. This unexpected portrayal of a war-time scene displays the home front, which is often omitted from war-time representations.
© CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Intact British tank
A British tank from the First World War is pictured fully intact before entering the scene of battle. When initially introduced, these machines struck fear into the hearts of their opposition.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
The two-man tank
A front-on view of aptly named two-man tank designed by Ford Motor Company. When operational, this may have been what terrified German soldiers would have seen.
© CORBIS
First World War in images: Hidden and extraordinary - a brand new gallery
Liquid fire offensive
A view from behind the French trench position shows an effective use of liquid fire; a technique intended to wipe out, or at least scare off opposition forces aiming to launch an offensive against the front-line trench.
© CORBIS
The day before, Kaiser Wilhelm, a marginal figure by this time, had warned Ludendorff: “We have reached the limits of our capacity. The war must be ended.”
In March, the German high command had launched a final great offensive to try to win the war – or force favourable peace terms – before American manpower and industrial strength could be fully deployed. After initial success, the offensive had wound down in July, with titanic German losses.
By the summer of 1918, American troops were pouring into Europe in great numbers. British troops were returning from Palestine. The Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, had agreed to release new divisions of British conscripts which he had held back in the spring, fearing that Field Marshal Douglas Haig would feed them uselessly into another meat-grinder like the Somme or Passchendaele.
A flurry of Allied offensives, like a series of boxers’ jabs – the French and Americans in the south; the Canadians, Australians and British in the north – pushed the Germans slowly back over the blood-soaked ground they had captured between March and June.
The Allied generals now had hundreds of improved tanks to spearhead their attacks. They had more accurate and better-organised artillery which could deliver effective, creeping barrages for the first time. They had learnt, finally, how to combine artillery, infantry, tanks and aircraft.
By mid-September, the Germans had retreated behind their great bastion, the Hindenburg Line, three miles in depth. Would a new static war of mud, trenches and barbed-wire prolong the conflict into 1919 or even 1920?
In late September, the British and French and the remnant of the Belgian army attacked near Ypres in the north. The British, Canadians, Australians, Americans and French assaulted the centre of the German line near Saint Quentin. The Americans and the French launched the Meuse-Argonne offensive in the south.
After 10 days of vicious fighting, the British, Australians and Americans broke through near Saint Quentin. The last prepared German positions were overrun by 5 October.
The new weapons and tactics helped. But so did the exhaustion of the German troops. The attack on Saint Quentin was planned by General Sir Henry Rawlinson, the one-time apostle of attrition, the unimaginative butcher of the Somme in 1916. He had been converted to the new, open warfare, allegedly more “economical” with soldiers’ lives.
He wrote at the time: “Had the Boche [Germans] not shown marked signs of deterioration during the past month, I should never have contemplated attacking the Hindenburg Line. Had it been defended by the Germans of two years ago, it would certainly have been impregnable.”
In truth, the 100 days campaign was not economical with lives. The warfare might be more open and more mechanised but the “poor, bloody infantry” still died in droves.
The battles of 1918 – Amiens, Montdidier, Bapaume, Mont Saint-Quentin, Vauxaillon, Epehy – have not been pounded into our collective memory like Verdun, the Somme or Passchendaele. It is easy to assume that they were comparatively painless. New weapons and tactics or not, the casualty figures for the “100 days” of battles which ended the war tell a rather different story.
The French suffered 531,000 casualties (dead, wounded and captured) in those three months, roughly as many as in the eight months of Verdun in 1916. The British (including Empire troops) had 411,000 casualties – almost exactly the same as in the four-and-a-half months of the Somme. The Americans suffered 127,000 casualties, more than double the total number of American casualties in the Vietnam War.
German casualties were devastating: 785,000 killed and wounded and 386,000 prisoners – more than a million men in three months.
One of the “British” casualties was an obscure second lieutenant in the Manchester Regiment who was killed in the crossing of the Sambre-Oise canal on 4 November. His name was Wilfred Owen. His poems, not yet published, would come to define the war. But the sense of catastrophic loss was, overwhelmingly, on the other side. Weeks before they signed the Armistice, Ludendorff and the rest of the German high command knew the war was lost. Despite the continuing horrendous losses, however, and starvation and civil unrest in Germany, they refused to seek terms.
By this time Germany was virtually a military dictatorship and the wishes of civilian politicians counted for little. Nonetheless, the generals insisted that it was for the civilian leadership to put up the white flag, not the army.
Tens of thousands of men died in the final days while Ludendorff played this game. Eventually, the Armistice was signed but a myth was created that the German army had never been defeated in the field. It had been “stabbed in the back” by politicians and left-wing revolutionaries at home. Within two decades, that myth helped to fuel the rise of the Nazis and the start of another war.
Tomorrow: America’s biggest battle
The '100 Moments' already published can be seen at: independent.co.uk/greatwar
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